How Does Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Relate to the Fulfilment of Basic Psychological Needs During Teaching Practicum?

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate environmental conditions in teaching practicums that support the development of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Motivational orientations such as self-efficacy beliefs and enthusiasm are crucial aspects of professional teacher competence and thus should be fostered right from the beginning of teacher training. Against the backdrop of self-determination theory, which is connected to intrinsic motivation, we examined effects from the fulfilment of basic psychological needs (needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness) during teaching practicums on changes in levels of perceived self-efficacy. A total of 103 German pre-service teachers enrolled in a Bachelor’s or Master’s Degree Program participated in this study at two times of measurement. The results reveal that the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and especially a sense of relatedness contributed positively to gains in self-efficacy. The findings are discussed with regard to the design of practicums in teacher training.

1. Introduction

Self-efficacy is considered one crucial component of teachers’ professional competency. It is closely connected to the quality of instruction and predicts students’ self-efficacy beliefs as well as their learning outcomes in school [1,2]. On the part of teachers, high levels of self-efficacy protect them from burnout and prevent them from dropping out of the teaching profession [1]. Strong self-efficacy beliefs also strengthen pre-service teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession [3]. One important place for the development of self-efficacy are field experiences during internships in the course of teacher education because they can provide opportunities for mastery experiences [4,5,6,7]. Tuchman and Isaacs found that internships in pre-service teacher education have a long-lasting effect on self-efficacy beliefs, even for senior teachers [8]. Especially early in teacher education, it is worthwhile investigating requirements for the development of self-efficacy because efficacy beliefs are then most malleable [2,6].

Another factor that contributes to instructional quality is the fulfilment of basic psychological needs [9]. Therefore, establishing context conditions that contribute to the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and help foster self-efficacy should be an important goal for teacher education [9,10].

However, the interplay between environmental factors of internships such as the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and individual factors such as self-efficacy beliefs have not yet been exhaustively examined [9,11,12]. The present study addresses this gap by investigating the contextual factors of internships during teacher education and their effects on the development of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs.

The first two sections of the following theoretical framework provide insight into the central assumptions of self-efficacy beliefs and basic psychological needs separately. Next, the two concepts are juxtaposed in their differences and similarities. The final section addresses the role of both concepts in the frame of teaching practicum.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy beliefs are defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” [1] (p. 3). Teacher efficacy as a type of self-efficacy refers to the confidence of (pre-service) teachers to have influence on students’ learning and performance. Bandura postulated four sources that raise self-efficacy beliefs [1]: (1) The most powerful source for the development of self-efficacy beliefs are mastery experiences. In the course of teacher education, hands-on activities, especially those in internships, provide the best opportunities for gaining mastery experiences [4,6,13]. (2) Vicarious experiences are considered another important source of self-efficacy especially for pre-service teachers [13]. Watching someone competently teaching contributes to higher levels of efficacy beliefs [14,15]. (3) Social persuasion is identified as support and feedback from significant others and can have an additional impact on building self-efficacy [7,16]. During internships mentors and cooperating teachers are considered an essential source for support [17]. (4) Physiological and emotional arousal in stressful teaching situations can undermine self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore, it is important to create an environment that is safe and supportive so that pre-service teachers can learn to self-regulate their arousal [18].

Self-efficacy, as a motivational construct, affects the effort exerted in teaching and the persistence when facing obstacles [2]. Furthermore, self-efficacy has been found to influence not only the effort and persistence exerted in teaching but also the motivation to teach. This includes both the direct effects of self-efficacy on teaching motivation, as well as its role as a mediator, through which the effects of internal beliefs and attitudes toward teaching are conveyed to enhance motivation [19] Based on the model of professional teacher competence self-efficacy beliefs are assigned to the cognitive domain of motivational orientations [20,21]. Besides individual experiences (e.g., mastery and vicarious experiences), environmental conditions such as school climate and social support influence self-efficacy beliefs [2] and can be interpreted as social persuasion.

2.2. Basic Psychological Needs

Within the framework of self-determination theory Ryan and Deci postulate three basic psychological needs that are innate and universal in human beings [22,23]. The fulfilment of these needs is associated with optimal human development and functioning, as well as psychological health and eudaimonic well-being [24]. Evelein and colleagues as well as Dreer give an overview of indications for levels of need fulfilment [12,25]: A low level of the basic psychological needs or no satisfaction at all are both associated with negative emotions like fear, sadness and uncertainty. Individuals tend to withdraw from activities or revolt against them. High levels of need fulfilment are accompanied with flow experiences, joy, self-confidence and engagement [25] (p. 1139). Self-determination theory focuses on a person-environment dialectic and proposes contextual conditions that either facilitate or thwart the satisfaction of the three basic needs, and thus personal growth. (1) The need for competence: People strive for a sense of effectiveness, aiming for their actions to result in desired outcomes. Especially when human beings are able to master adequately challenging tasks, they will feel competent. (2) The need for autonomy: Within the framework of self-determination theory, autonomy is described as self-determination. It does not imply that people act entirely independently but rather refers to “the extent to which people authentically or genuinely concur with the forces that do influence their behavior” [24] (p. 330). Thus, a sense of autonomy is associated with having a choice over one’s actions. It will be impeded when individuals are coerced to undertake a certain task or feel controlled by their environment. These two basic psychological needs are postulated to be closely related and form the basis for intrinsic motivation [22] (p. 30). (3) The need for relatedness: Feeling connected to a social group is crucial for the internalization and integration of values and behavioral regulations [23,24]. Moreover, in general it is essential for human beings to establish secure attachments with important others, as their well-being and growth can be jeopardized without them. Thus, the need for relatedness will be satisfied when individuals feel connected to and supported by their social environment [26]. In summary, it can be stated that all three basic psychological needs have to be fulfilled in order that human organisms can thrive and function the best possible way [27] (p. 243).

2.3. Links and Differences Between Self-Efficacy and the Fulfilment of Needs

Although the need for competence and self-efficacy beliefs have a significant overlap of content, there are important differences between the two constructs. Unlike the self-determination theory, the concept of self-efficacy is rooted in an incentive-based theoretical approach [27]. This approach suggests that people are motivated by anticipated rewards and, as a result, behave in ways that they believe will lead to those rewards. Self-efficacy beliefs are conclusively connected to preceding and current behavioral outcomes [1]. For instance, Holzberger and colleagues demonstrated that teachers’ mastery experiences regarding instructional quality explained their self-efficacy beliefs one year later, even when controlling for their initial self-efficacy beliefs [28]. On the contrary, self-determination theory, which emphasizes the fulfilment of basic psychological needs, describes the fulfilment of the need for competence as inherently rewarding. It contributes to desired outcomes such as well-being and optimal functioning. Moreover, while self-determination (i.e., autonomy) is not addressed within the self-efficacy theory, it plays an important role within the self-determination theory. Beyond that, the perspectives of the two theories differ. Self-efficacy beliefs focus on personal experiences and therefore primarily address the individual level, whereas self-determination theory follows a person-environment approach [9]. Both concepts can be defined as different facets of motivation, with basic psychological needs emphasizing the affective aspects of motivation and self-efficacy focusing in the cognitive-evaluative aspects of motivation [9].

However, both theories can be linked through their positive effects: high self-efficacy beliefs and the fulfilment of basic psychological needs are both connected with greater persistence, increased engagement reduced dropout rates and intrinsic motivation [20,27]. Klaejsen and colleagues concatenate both approaches by describing self-efficacy beliefs as proximal variables closely related to behavior (e.g., engagement), while basic psychological needs function as more distal variables that can influence self-efficacy [29]. This view is supported by findings from Diseth and colleagues, who showed that basic psychological need fulfilment predicted self-efficacy, which in turn predicted achievement goals in high school students [30]. Macakova and Wood extended these findings by showing that while basic psychological need satisfaction did not directly impact academic achievement among university students, it did so indirectly through self-efficacy [31]. Chan and colleagues investigated how teacher educators’ effective instructional behaviors which satisfy the psychological needs for competence (via feedback), autonomy, and relatedness (via cooperative learning) influence teaching self-efficacy in Cambodian pre-service teachers. Their findings revealed that fulfilling the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness significantly predicted self-efficacy for instructional strategies and student engagement. Furthermore, relatedness was found to uniquely predict self-efficacy for classroom management. Additionally, intrinsic motivation mediated the effects of all three psychological needs on self-efficacy, emphasizing its role as a key mediating pathway [32]. A study by Guo and Xu echoed these findings among Chinese pre-service teachers, demonstrating that both teaching self-efficacy and the fulfillment of competence and autonomy needs contributed to greater intrinsic motivation. Moreover, pre-service teachers whose competence needs were met reported higher self-efficacy, experienced greater enjoyment in teaching, and were more intrinsically motivated to teach. However, relatedness—defined in this context as support from “people I care about”—and autonomy did not exhibit a significant association with self-efficacy. The authors also found that the pre-service teachers could be divided into two distinct groups. Over half of the students showed low levels of need satisfaction and self-efficacy, with moderate levels of joy in teaching, while nearly half of the students exhibited moderate to high levels across these constructs [33] In contrast, Bjorklund and colleagues discovered that pre-service teachers’ sense of belonging to a teacher education program—characterized by connections with faculty, cooperating teachers, the learning environment, and shared relevant idealistic views— was significantly linked to higher teaching self-efficacy. This sense of belonging had even greater impact on self-efficacy than peer support networks, which the authors argue is due to its role in fostering a teacher identity. This identity development is thought to enhance engagement and foster a greater sense of competence, thus further strengthening self-efficacy [34].

These results suggest that self-efficacy mediates the relationship between basic psychological needs and academic success, highlighting the importance of addressing both constructs in educational settings. The aforementioned studies collectively underscore the significance of addressing basic psychological needs to enhance self-efficacy and, ultimately, positive emotions, teaching motivation, and academic outcomes.

2.4. Self-Efficacy and Basic Psychological Needs in the Context of a Teaching Practicum

As mentioned before, the teaching practicum is an important component of teacher education. Ulrich and colleagues provide an overview of studies identifying both intended and non-intended effects of teaching practicums [35]. Intended effects comprise for example higher levels of perceived competence and intrinsic motivation following the practicum. Additionally, the relationship between pre-service teachers and their mentors appears to be significant for the success of field experiences. One non-intended effect was for example a negative evaluation of the practicum when there were only few opportunities to teach. In line with this, internships can address sources of (pre-) teachers’ self-efficacy, especially through mastery experiences, thereby fostering more positive self-efficacy beliefs [13]. Nevertheless, field experiences alone may not automatically lead to higher levels of perceived self-efficacy [21]. For them to be effective, they must meet certain quality standards, providing opportunities for both mastery and vicarious experiences, as well as verbal persuasion. Furthermore, it is essential to create a supportive environment for pre-service teachers to minimize negative stress and affective arousal. These conditions align with environmental factors that support the fulfilment of pre-service teachers’ basic psychological needs. The following section reviews empirical studies that investigated environmental factors of teaching practicums and their impact on pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs and other motivation-related outcomes.

Brown and colleagues found a significant increase in self-efficacy and perceived preparedness for teaching following a teaching practicum [36]. Pre-service teachers reported hands-on teaching experiences, observing experienced teachers and the relationships with cooperating teachers as the most important components that foster perceived preparedness for teaching [36] (p. 86). Rupp and Becker examined fluctuations in pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy during a teaching practicum and explored to which degree self-efficacy beliefs are reducible to person- or situation-specific factors [37]. For the majority of pre-service teachers there was an increase in self-efficacy beliefs. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) revealed that mastery experiences and discourse elements in lesson conferences (e.g., an orientation towards the needs of pre-service teachers) predicted self-efficacy. Pre-service teachers who received more confidence from their cooperating teachers and thus ware enabled to act autonomously while being treated as equal colleagues felt more self-efficacious [37] (p. 9). Results of a study by König and colleagues indicated that social support from mentor teachers enhances pre-service teachers’ perceived teaching ability [38]. The authors suggest that receiving more responsibility and support from mentor teachers help fulfill needs for competence and autonomy [38]. A regression analysis by Clark and Newberry revealed that mastery experiences, verbal persuasion from teacher educators and cooperating teachers, as well as vicarious experiences, contributed to higher levels of self-efficacy [13]. However, the predictors accounted only for 18% of the variance in self-efficacy, indicating that other factors likely contribute to self-efficacy. There are further studies that substantiate the important role of mentor teachers’ social support for beginning teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs [7,16].

By applying these findings to self-determination theory, it becomes clear that the school environment and especially mentor teachers play a key role in satisfying pre-service teachers’ basic psychological needs and fostering the development of their self-efficacy [39]. A study by Liu and Sitoe showed that meeting all three basic psychological needs created environmental conditions that contributed to higher perceived competence regarding teaching. The authors investigated the degree of needs satisfaction during a teaching practicum and identified four different clusters: A low competence (and moderate autonomy and relatedness) cluster, a low psychological needs cluster, a moderate psychological needs cluster, and a high psychological needs cluster. When all three basic psychological needs were highly satisfied pre-service teachers reported the most positive experiences during the practicum and felt highly competent in lesson preparation, implementation, evaluation, and classroom management. Conversely, when none of the basic psychological needs were satisfied, pre-service teachers showed low levels of perceived competence, even if their needs for autonomy and relatedness were moderately met [40]. In contrast to this finding, another study by Liu and Wang revealed that high fulfilment of the need for relatedness could compensate for moderate feelings of autonomy and competence. Pre-service teachers showed high levels of perceived competence in lesson preparation and classroom management and reported more positive professional attitudes [41]. Dreer also found significant correlations between needs fulfilment during a nine-day practicum and self-efficacy, as well as other success indicators such as learner satisfaction and self-reflection. Dreer emphasized the importance of the need for relatedness, noting that being on a par with professional teachers and being supported by them is essential for pre-service teachers in order to identify with the teaching profession [12].

Relations between need fulfilment and self-efficacy were also found for professional teachers. Holzberger and colleagues tested effects from teachers’ psychological needs satisfaction on their self-efficacy beliefs and instructional behaviors. The result of a moderation model was that self-efficacy beliefs had positive effects on student ratings of classroom management and teacher-student relationships only when psychological needs were satisfied by the school environment [9]. Doménech-Betoret and colleagues showed that the effects of teachers’ support resources on engagement and burnout were fully mediated by basic psychological needs [42]. Klaeijsen and colleagues tested in a mediation model if the fulfilment of basic psychological needs explained innovative behavior through intrinsic motivation and occupational self-efficacy. The strongest effect was found from need satisfaction to self-efficacy. That path could also best explain innovative behavior [29].

Based on the aforementioned theoretical assumptions and empirical findings we hypothesize (1) that teaching practicums, especially advanced internships with more opportunities for hands-on activities, positively affect the development of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Moreover, we assume (2) that the fulfilment of basic psychological needs during the practicum predicts increases of self-efficacy and will be a stronger predictor than the number of practicums. Given the importance of mentor support, we expect (3) that the need for relatedness has a particularly significant impact on changes in pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Participants and Procedure

Longitudinal data were collected from two cohorts of pre-service teachers: one cohort (N = 48) in fall 2015 and another cohort (N = 56) in fall 2016 (see Table 1). The participants were enrolled in teacher training at Leuphana University Lüneburg in Germany. At the first time of measurement, the first cohort consisted of approximately 46% undergraduate students and 54% were pursuing a Master’s Degree. In the second cohort, nearly 77% were Bachelor’s students and 23% were Master’s students. Due to the small sample size, the two longitudinal cohorts were combined into one group after checking for comparability regarding target variables (pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy, PTSE) and demographic variables: Both cohorts included around 90% female pre-service teachers (cohort 1: 95.8%, cohort 2: 89.3%); the mean age of the combined cohort was 22 years with a standard deviation of 2.39 (cohort 1: 22.5 (2.59), cohort 2: 21.3 (2.23)). Questionnaires were distributed during either university lectures and seminars or the students participated voluntarily in additional time slots. The second time of measurement took place one year later in fall 2016 and in fall 2017, respectively. By this time, the majority of students had completed at least one teaching practicum.

3.2. Practicum Formats

In the course of teacher training at Leuphana University Lüneburg, the first internship is scheduled for the second or third Bachelor’s semester. During the three-week practicum, pre-service teachers primarily observe lessons and assist experienced teachers under their guidance. The second practicum, which lasts four weeks, takes place in the fourth of fifth Bachelor semester. In this phase, pre-service teachers are required to plan, conduct, and analyze a minimum of four lessons independently. In addition to that, they support mentor teachers in their lesson design, attend team meetings and participate in parent-teacher evenings. The third internship takes place during the first and second Master’s semester. The 18-weeks practicum is divided in two different phases: During the first two weeks, pre-service teachers become acquainted with teaching independently by observing and analyzing lessons based on didactical criteria. During the following 16 weeks, they plan, hold and analyze lessons on their own and gain profound insight into relevant tasks and processes at school (e.g., conferences, parent-teacher evenings). All three internships are integrated in accompanying seminars where pre-service teachers evaluate and reflect on their practical experiences.

3.3. Measures

In order to investigate the relationships between the number of completed practicums, the fulfilment of basic psychological needs during the most recent practicum and self-efficacy beliefs, the participants filled out questionnaires. At the second time of measurement, participants were asked to report the number of internships they had completed, which also served as an indicator of their academic semester.

To assess the fulfilment of basic psychological needs, we developed a scale based on self-determination theory, specifically tailored to the teaching practicum context. The pre-service teachers were asked to refer their answers to the practicum in which they have been most actively involved. The scale consisted of 9 items in total, with three items corresponding to each of the three basic needs, all beginning with the prompt “During my practicum...” Examples include: autonomy (“I had a say in designing lessons”), competence (“I was praised for good work”), and relatedness (“I was treated like an equal colleague”). Although the theoretically expected three-factor structure was not empirically confirmed, the subscales demonstrated good internal consistency. Thus, we used an overall scale to investigate the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Given the critical importance of mentor teacher support, we also utilized the relatedness subscale independently in order to examine the effects of fulfilling this specific need on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs.

Self-efficacy beliefs were assessed using eight items at both times of measurement. Four items were derived from a scale developed by Schmitz and Schwarzer (e.g., “I am confident in making the subject matter accessible to under-achieving students and those with learning disorders.”) [43]. Three items were taken from a scale by Schulte (e.g., “I am confident in enthusing students for new projects.”) [44]. One item was self-constructed (“I am confident in encouraging students to engage in independent learning.”). To investigate changes in self-efficacy beliefs over time, analyses were conducted using the delta term. All questionnaire items were Likert-type, ranging from 1 (“does not apply at all”) to 4 (“fully applies”). A translation of the scales used can be found in Appendix A.

Correlational analyses were conducted using SPSS Statistics 25. The regression models were carried out using Mplus Version 7.4. Missing data were handled with full information maximum likelihood (FIML) technique.

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations and internal consistencies for the scales and subscales. The descriptive results are provided separately for each longitudinal cohort as well as for the combined cohort.

Table 1. Descriptive Sstatistics for the number of practicums, the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and self-efficacy beliefs.

Scale	Cohort 1, M (SD), (N = 48)	Cohort 2, M (SD), (N = 56)	Combined Cohort, M (SD), (N = 104)
Number of practicums t2	1.79 (0.87)	1.29 (0.78)	1.52 (0.86)
BPN-Scale t2	3.36 (0.55), α = 0.86	2.93 (0.68), α = 0.88	3.14 (0.65), α = 0.89
Relatedness t2	3.38 (0.54), α = 0.70	3.00 (0.72), α = 0.77	3.15 (0.67), α = 0.76
Competence t2	3.52 (0.60), α = 0.72	3.11 (0.77), α = 0.73	3.30 (0.72), α = 0.75
Autonomy t2	3.19 (0.75), α = 0.78	2.72 (0.79), α = 0.73	2.95 (0.81), α = 0.77
PTSE t1	3.09 (0.37), α = 0.72	3.00 (0.38), α = 0.75	3.04 (0.38), α = 0.73
PTSE t2	3.27 (0.39), α = 0.79	3.11 (0.37), α = 0.73	3.18 (0.38), α = 0.77

SD, standard deviation; t1/t2, times of measurement; BPN, basic psychological needs; PTSE; pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

Table 1. Descriptive Sstatistics for the number of practicums, the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and self-efficacy beliefs.

Scale	Cohort 1, M (SD), (N = 48)	Cohort 2, M (SD), (N = 56)	Combined Cohort, M (SD), (N = 104)
Number of practicums t2	1.79 (0.87)	1.29 (0.78)	1.52 (0.86)
BPN-Scale t2	3.36 (0.55), α = 0.86	2.93 (0.68), α = 0.88	3.14 (0.65), α = 0.89
Relatedness t2	3.38 (0.54), α = 0.70	3.00 (0.72), α = 0.77	3.15 (0.67), α = 0.76
Competence t2	3.52 (0.60), α = 0.72	3.11 (0.77), α = 0.73	3.30 (0.72), α = 0.75
Autonomy t2	3.19 (0.75), α = 0.78	2.72 (0.79), α = 0.73	2.95 (0.81), α = 0.77
PTSE t1	3.09 (0.37), α = 0.72	3.00 (0.38), α = 0.75	3.04 (0.38), α = 0.73
PTSE t2	3.27 (0.39), α = 0.79	3.11 (0.37), α = 0.73	3.18 (0.38), α = 0.77

SD, standard deviation; t1/t2, times of measurement; BPN, basic psychological needs; PTSE; pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

4. Results

In a first step, we conducted a correlational analysis (see

Table 2. Correlation matrix for number of practicums, semesters, the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and self-efficacy.

	Practicums	Semester	BPN	BPN (R)	BPN (C)	BPN (A)	PTSEt1	PTSEt2
Practicums	1
Semester	0.81 ***	1
BPN	0.49 ***	0.52 ***	1
BPN (R)	0.30 **	0.34 **	0.84 ***	1
BPN (C)	0.53 ***	0.55 ***	0.89 ***	0.59 ***	1
BPN (A)	0.50 ***	0.50 ***	0.93 ***	0.68 ***	0.77 ***	1
PTSEt1	0.34 **	0.27 **	0.24 *	0.26 *	0.21	0.19	1
PTSEt2	0.39 ***	0.35 ***	0.40 ***	0.39 ***	0.33 **	0.35 ***	0.46 ***	1

*** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05; BPN, basic psychological needs; R, relatedness; C, competency; A, autonomy; PTSE; pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

).

As expected, the number of semesters and practicums showed the strongest relationship—aside from those between the subscales of basic psychological needs and the total scale. Positive relationships were also observed between the number of completed practicums and self-efficacy beliefs, which were notably stronger than those between semesters and self-efficacy beliefs. Moreover, the fulfilment of basic psychological needs was positively related with the number of practicums. The findings also indicate a relatively high stability of self-efficacy beliefs over time, as evidenced by the autocorrelation showing the strongest relationship for self-efficacy at the second time of measurement. The second largest correlation was observed between self-efficacy at the second time of measurement and the fulfilment of all basic psychological needs. Among the subscales of basic psychological needs, the satisfaction of the need for relatedness had the highest correlation with self-efficacy beliefs.

In order to test our hypotheses, we developed a path model with changes in self-efficacy as the dependent variable. Before examining the assumed relationships, we conducted pre-analyses: In a first step, we checked if self-efficacy beliefs at the first time of measurement predicted changes in self-efficacy over time. Results indicated that pre-service teachers with higher initial self-efficacy experienced less growth in self-efficacy beliefs over time (β = −0.51, p < 0.001). This addition revealed that pre-service teachers in more advanced semesters experienced greater development in self-efficacy beliefs (β = 0.23, p < 0.01). Inserting the semester variable into the model increased the amount of variance explained from 26% to 31%. However, when the number of practicums was added to the model along with the semester variable, both predictors became non-significant due to high multicollinearity (see

Table 3. Pre-analyses: Path coefficients from the multiple regression of variables on changes of self-efficacy beliefs.

Predictor	N (Participants)	β (SE)	p	R2
PTSEt1		−0.51 (0.07)	0.000
Δ PTSE	103			0.259
PTSEt1		−0.57 (0.07)	0.000
semester		0.23 (0.08)	0.008
Δ PTSE	103			0.306
PTSEt1		−0.59 (0.07)	0.000
practicum		0.17 (0.14)	0.220
semester		0.09 (0.14)	0.488
Δ PTSE	103			0.316

β, standardized path coefficient; SE, standard error of estimation; R², variance explained, PTSE; pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy; Δ PTS, changes in self-efficacy from t1 to t2.

).

To test our first hypothesis, we included self-efficacy beliefs at the first time of measurement and the number of completed practicums as predictor variables for changes in self-efficacy over time. Both predictors positively contributed to changes in self-efficacy beliefs (β = −0.59, p < 0.001; β = 0.25, p < 0.01). The model explained 31% of the variance.

To test our second hypothesis, we added the fulfilment of basic psychological needs as an additional predictor into the model. Pre-service teachers who felt more effective, self-determined and related to the school community during their practicum showed a greater increase in self-efficacy beliefs (β = 0.25, p < 0.05). The number of practicums became non-significant (β = 0.10, p = n. s.). Adding the fulfilment of basic psychological needs into the path model increased the variance explained to 38%.

Given the strong correlation between the number of practicums and the fulfilment of basic psychological needs, we conducted a mediation analysis. As shown in Figure 1, the mediation model examined whether the fulfilment of basic psychological needs mediated the effect of the number of practicums on changes in self-efficacy. The results provided evidence for the assumption that more advanced practicums facilitated the fulfilment of basic psychological, which in turn contributed to larger changes in self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy beliefs at the first time of measurement remained the strongest predictor of changes in self-efficacy beliefs. The number of practicums significantly affected the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and explained 31% of the variance. Furthermore, the indirect effect from the number of practicums to changes in self-efficacy beliefs was significant (β = 0.14, p < 0.5).

Due to the small sample size and degrees of freedom the RMSEA is not reported [45]. Fit indices indicate an acceptable model fit [46].

To test our third hypothesis, we included the fulfilment of the need for relatedness into model instead of the total basic psychological needs scale. The findings are in line with the assumption that a sense of belongingness is important for the development of self-efficacy. Again, the number of practicums did not reach significance but the satisfaction of the need for relatedness contributed significantly to positive changes in levels of self-efficacy (β = 0.24, p < 0.01) and the variance slightly increased to 39%.

Table 4. Path coefficients from the multiple regression of model variables on changes of self-efficacy beliefs.

Predictor	N (Participants)	β (SE)	p	R2
Model 1
PTSEt1		−0.59 (0.07)	0.000
practicum		0.25 (0.09)	0.004
Δ PTSE	103			0.312
Model 2
PTSEt1		−0.61 (0.07)	0.000
practicum		0.10 (0.10)	0.297
BPN		0.25 (0.10)	0.010
Δ PTSE	90			0.379
Model 3
PTSEt1		−0.62 (0.07)	0.000
practicum		0.15 (0.09)	0.081
BPN (R)		0.24 (0.09)	0.006
Δ PTSE	90			0.385

β, standardized path coefficient; SE, standard error of estimation; R², variance explained, PTSE; pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy; Δ PTS, changes in self-efficacy from t1 to t2; BPN, fulfilment of basic psychological needs; BPN (R), fulfilment of the need for relatedness.

summarizes the results of the path models referring to the three hypotheses.

5. Discussion

This study investigated effects of the number of completed teaching practicums and the fulfilment of basic psychological needs on changes in pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Utilizing a pre-test/post-test design, we examined whether both the quantity and quality of practicums in teacher education could predict developments in self-efficacy. Besides the investigation of all three basic psychological needs, we were especially interested in the predictive value of the need for relatedness since a supportive mentor-mentee relationship is regarded a crucial component for the development of self-efficacy [6].

5.1. Relationships Between the Number of Practicums, the Fulfilment of Basic Psychological Needs and Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Our preliminary analyses revealed that both the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and self-efficacy beliefs were rated relatively high, with self-efficacy levels even increasing by the second time of measurement. These findings align with Weinstein who observed an “unrealistic optimism” in pre-service teachers regarding their perceived teaching competence [47]. Correlational analyses revealed that the number of practicums and the fulfilment of basic psychological needs were significantly associated with self-efficacy beliefs, at both the first and second time of measurement. This may be partially due to some pre-service teachers having already completed a practicum at the first time of measurement. Nevertheless, the relationship between basic psychological needs and self-efficacy was considerably stronger at the second time of measurement. This result could be traced back to the fact that the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and its impact on self-efficacybecome more pronounced in later practicums. The significant correlation between the number of practicums and the fulfilment of basic psychological needs further supports this idea, indicating that more advanced practicums offer greater opportunities for need fulfilment and thus contribute to increased self-efficacy. Jähne and colleagues demonstrated this effect on a smaller scale, examining the dynamics of basic psychological need fulfilment over the course of a single practicum. Using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model, they tracked changes in need fulfilment over a 12-week period, with assessments conducted approximately every two weeks. Their findings revealed that while the need for relatedness (measured through relationships with students and teachers, which fluctuated due to frequent changes in class assignments) varied, the needs for competence and autonomy remained relatively stable by the end of the practicum. The authors suggest that as pre-service teachers gained more experience, they were granted greater autonomy in their teaching, which, in turn, led to successful outcomes and fostered a stronger sense of competence [48]. The following section summarizes the findings in relation to our hypotheses. In every path model, we controlled for effects from initial levels of self-efficacy.

(1)

Teaching practicums, especially advanced internships with more opportunities for hands-on activities, positively affect the development of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs.

The results of our path model provided evidence for hypothesis 1: Pre-service teachers who had completed more teaching practicums demonstrated greater development in their self-efficacy over one year. This suggests that the sheer number of completed practicums led to a positive change in self-efficacy. As the duration and level of involvement increases with the number of practicums, we also tested the impact of qualitative conditions—namely the fulfilment of basic psychological needs during the practicum.

(2)

The fulfilment of basic psychological needs during the practicum predicts increases of self-efficacy and will be a stronger predictor than the number of practicums.

When considering both the number of completed practicums and the fulfilment of the three basic psychological needs, the effect of the number of practicums on changes in self-efficacy disappears completely. This finding suggests that it is not the quantity of practicums but rather the environmental conditions within the practicums that affect self-efficacy beliefs. However, significant correlations between the number of practicums and the fulfilment of basic psychological needs suggest that these variables are strongly interconnected. To explore this further, we conducted a mediation analysis to test whether later teaching practicums are associated with higher levels of need fulfilment and, in turn, contributed to increases in self-efficacy beliefs. The findings support our assumption, showing that effects of the number of practicums on self-efficacy beliefs were fully mediated by the fulfilment of basic psychological needs.

(3)

The need for relatedness has a particularly significant impact on changes in pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

Since the correlation matrix showed that relatedness had the weakest connection with the number of practicums, yet the strongest relationship with self-efficacy beliefs, we assumed that a sense of belongingness plays a particularly critical role in the context of field experiences and self-efficacy development. We therefore focused exclusively on the need for relatedness and excluded indications of the need for competence and autonomy. The results gave proof that pre-service teachers who were treated like equal colleagues, felt supported and experienced a sense of belonging showed higher increases in self-efficacy beliefs. The fulfilment of relatedness explained slightly more variance in self-efficacy gains compared to the overall basic psychological needs. In summary, the results indicate that the need for relatedness seems to play a key role for the development of self-efficacy beliefs. While opportunities to satisfy the needs for autonomy and competence may be limited during early practicums, integrating pre-service teachers into the teaching staff and valuing their input can enhance their sense of belonging and, subsequently, their self-efficacy.

5.2. Limitations

Although the study provided valuable insights into practicum characteristics that foster the development of self-efficacy, a number of restrictions of our study and areas for future research should be mentioned. The relatively small sample size imposed some restrictions regarding the complexity of the models: we could not apply structural equation modeling and above that, the analysis of three separate subscales of basic psychological needs would have resulted in problems regarding adequate model estimation [49]. In order to assess separate impacts of relatedness, autonomy and competence, future research should strive to replicate a three-factor solution with larger and more distinct scales. A further limitation is the sole use of self-reports that may have caused biases due to common method variance. On the other hand, both self-efficacy beliefs and the perceived fulfilment of basic psychological needs are inner interpretations and are best investigated by self-reports [37]. Biases in shared methods can lead to overestimations of relations. However, the overall high levels of self-efficacy and fulfilment of basic psychological needs, coupled with low variability, might have led to underestimations of the relations due to ceiling effects. A way to meet these challenges results again in a larger, unbiased sample that represents a full spectrum of pre-service teachers’ motivational orientations and experiences. In order to investigate effects from environmental conditions of practicums even more precisely, future studies should assess self-efficacy-beliefs on multiple times of measurement: just before the beginning of, during and after the practicum. This approach would allow for a direct link between changes in self-efficacy and specific practicum characteristics. Moreover, follow-up surveys could provide insights into the stability of self-efficacy after a practicum [40]. To enrich the understanding of supportive environmental requirements during the practicum, future research might also benefit from including additional perspectives from mentor teachers to better understand supportive practicum conditions.

Variability in the quality of mentor support, class sizes, and resource availability could affect the generalizability of the findings. Future research should account for these factors to enhance the applicability of results across different practicum settings. Personal characteristics such as resilience and intrinsic motivation might also influence self-efficacy and perceptions of psychological need fulfilment. Future studies should control for these variables to better isolate the effects of practicum conditions.

6. Conclusions and Practical Implications

We believe our investigation provides valuable insights for the design of field experiences in teacher training. The results emphasize that fulfilling basic psychological needs is a crucial component in practicums which is closely connected to the development of self-efficacy. Therefore, we suggest that teaching practicums should meet the following requirements:

(1). Opportunities for mastery experiences: Pre-service teachers should be given the opportunity to succeed in their teaching in order to gain mastery experiences. Korthagen and Evelein suggest that mentor teachers should assign small, achievable tasks that are still challenging and coach them carefully. Pre-service teachers should be placed in manageable classes and should receive valuable feedback by their mentor teachers [50].

(2). Autonomy and active participation: Mentor teachers should have confidence in pre-service teachers’ abilities and should allow them to participate actively in lesson planning and design. By reducing control over pre-service teachers’ actions, they will be enabled to feel more autonomous. This concept of “jumping in” is considered a crucial component of effective mentoring [51]. However, it should also be noted that pre-service teachers, especially in the early stages, may still require a bit more guidance from their mentor teachers. Excessive autonomy might come at the expense of their sense of competence. Therefore, it is essential to proceed with great sensitivity, ensuring that the need for autonomy and the experience of competence are appropriately aligned with the knowledge and experience levels of the pre-service teachers [48].

(3). Supportive relationships: A close and supportive relationship between mentor teachers and pre-service teachers does not only contribute to the fulfilment of needs for competence and autonomy but it is an important aspect of a successful practicum itself. When mentor teachers treat pre-service teachers as equal colleagues and foster a sense of belonging within the staff and the school as a whole, the need for relatedness will be satisfied. The importance of the quality of school mentoring during internships (e.g., useful feedback) is also emphasized in the study by Jähne and colleagues, which concludes that support from teachers at the school, as opposed to university-based mentoring, has a positive impact on all three basic psychological needs [48].

(4). Feedback: Implementing regular feedback mechanisms in practicums could help pre-service teachers and mentors continuously reflect on and adjust their approaches to need fulfilment and self-efficacy development. The Pre-Service Teacher Motivation Model (PTMM) by McLennen and colleagues clearly illustrates that performance feedback—such as through formative assessment of knowledge and skills during a semester, course, or internship—helps to foster a sense of competence [52].

(5). Pre-Service Teacher Motivation Model: The PTMM offers promising practical implications, as it is based on the assumptions of Self-Determination Theory and is thus closely tied to the fulfillment of all three basic psychological needs. The model identifies three key factors: (1) “Student-Centered Organization,” which can satisfy the need for autonomy by providing pre-service teachers with freedom and opportunities to explore their own ideas and solutions; (2) “Connected Learning,” which leads to successful learning experiences through the resources and support provided by instructors; and (3) “Relational Dynamics,” which are supported by collaborative work with peers, access to professional networks, and cooperation with university staff and teachers, as well as by shared values that are manifested through a common language, respect, trust, and appreciation of individual contributions to the community. Furthermore, Relational Dynamics was found to explain self-efficacy in relation to classroom management, classroom instruction, and student engagement, underscoring the critical role of interpersonal dimensions in teacher education [52].

(6). Awareness of the concept of basic psychological needs: Besides fulfilling the basic psychological needs, it appears useful to introduce the concept of psychological needs to both, mentor and pre-service teachers [37,40]. This could involve integrating psychological needs theory into university seminars for pre-service teachers, as well as incorporating it into school-based professional development for experienced teachers. By raising awareness and providing strategies for addressing these needs, both mentors and pre-service teachers can more effectively support each other and ensure that these needs are met. Additionally, this approach could be extended to in-service training for teachers, enhancing their interactions with students and improving the overall educational environment.