Chilean Primary Learners’ Motivation and Attitude towards English as a Foreign Language

Abstract

This study aims to identify motivational and attitude variables among Chilean young English learners from Concepción. A child-appropriate Likert scale questionnaire was distributed to 137 students from the 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade of two state-run primary schools. The instrument considered five variables: attitude towards English, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, Ideal L2 Self, and parent-oriented motivation, because the eclectic nature of early language learning has been shown to be influenced by these factors. The variables for teacher profile considered years of teaching experience, training in primary English language teaching, and access to multisensory and audio-visual materials. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to determine the internal consistency of the instrument. The Mann–Whitney U test and the Kruskal–Wallis H-test using Dunn’s post hoc contrast were used to compare the motivations and attitudes by gender, teacher profile, and grade. Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient was then used to identify the relationship between the target variables and the teacher profile. Results show that teacher profile is a key factor in motivation and attitude to learning English, particularly their access to multisensory and audio-visual materials. This study’s main novelty is that it is the first time a questionnaire focused on children’s attitudes and motivations has been applied in Chile, with clear implications for teacher education and policy implementation assessment.

1. Introduction

In recent decades there has been an increase in the number of children that learn English at school as part of their primary education [1]. These children are referred to as Young Language Learners (YLL hereafter), and in this paper this refers to children aged 8 to 10 years who are learning English as part of the first four years of their primary school education.

There has been a longstanding assumption that starting language learning at a younger age can be advantageous. Certain elements identified in the literature support this, such as enhancement of the use of the language in action [2,3] and the promotion of positive motivation [4,5]. This assumption has influenced policy changes in primary educational curricula in Europe [6,7,8] and the Americas [9,10,11,12]. The literature shows that the more opportunities children have to experience a language in a meaningful context, as well as using it for a particular purpose, the more effective the learning process becomes [13]. Recent studies have strongly argued that early language learning is closely related to children’s experiences in the classroom and their learning conditions [7,14], and that teachers’ expertise in creating an appropriate learning environment for language learning seems to have a great impact on the effectiveness of an early start [15,16,17], particularly as regards exposure, attitude, and motivation [18,19,20].

In Chile, after ten years of implementation of a suggested curriculum [21] for early primary education [9], little is known about YLLs’ learning conditions [22,23,24,25] and even less is known about their learning experiences [26,27]. Thus, this article reports a study of the motivation and attitude variation of Chilean primary English language learners from two state-run schools in Concepción, Chile.

2. Motivation, Attitude, and Teaching and Learning Context of YLLs

The study of motivation within the context of second language (L2) learning has been a subject of extensive discussion in the literature [28,29]. One of the most established theoretical frameworks for understanding motivation in L2 learning was developed by Gardner [30]. His model encompasses integrative motivation (an interest in and empathy with the speakers of the target language) and instrumental motivation (an interest in the L2 for practical reasons). In the field of social psychology, Ryan and Deci [31,32] introduced Self-Determination Theory (SDT) which influenced L2 research as an alternative taxonomy for comprehending students’ motives for language learning. According to their theory, motivation can stem from intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic motivation is associated with the inner satisfaction and joy of learning a new language, whereas extrinsically motivated students are driven by the desire to learn English for rewards or improved career prospects [33,34,35]. SDT not only considers the level of motivation but also its orientation [36]. Furthermore, SDT posits that the internalisation of motivation depends on learners’ basic psychological needs, such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness [37]. More recently, Dörnyei and Ushioda [38] introduced another theoretical model known as the L2 Motivational Self System. This model comprises three main elements: the Ideal L2 Self (representing learners’ idealised images of themselves as future L2 users), the Ought-to L2 Self (composed of idealised images intended to please others or avoid negative consequences), and the L2 Learning Experience (involving motives associated with the immediate learning environment and experience) [28] (p. 62).

While these models are well established within the theoretical frameworks of L2 motivation, they have been found to have limitations when applied to YLLs. Over the past decade, it has become increasingly evident that in early language learning, motivation is a distinctive phenomenon [20,28,29], requiring an eclectic perspective which combines variables from established models [39]. This perspective also considers learning conditions and the role of adults in children’s language learning experience. Mihaljević Djigunović and Nikolov [29] propose a framework for researching YLL motivation that considers its complexity and variability, addressing children’s developmental stages (Stage 1: ages 6–8, Stage 2: ages 9–11, and Stage 3: ages 12–14), the role of significant others (teachers, family, and peers), and the teaching and learning context (school and social environment) (Figure 1).

If motivation refers to a factor that provides the impetus to begin and continue learning a foreign language (FL), attitudes can be defined as feelings toward the FL, the learning situation, the speakers of the FL, and so on [39]. According to Gardner [30], attitudes in L2 learning are defined as “evaluative reactions to some referent or attitude object, inferred from individuals’ beliefs or opinions about the referent” [30] (p. 9). Attitudes in early language learning are recognized as one of the individual learner differences that exhibits dynamic qualities, changing over time and influencing learning behaviour and achievements [19,40]. Research into YLLs’ attitudes and motivation has often studied these together [5,6,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48] and found them to be highly dependent on the teaching and learning context [19,28,45,47].

The learning contexts and conditions in which this education occurs may vary significantly across settings. Research, as cited by Enever [7,49,50] and Muñoz [51], has highlighted that English language learning conditions are primarily associated with several key factors, including the expertise of teachers, curriculum design [52], the intensity and continuity of English language provision, the sustainability of motivation over time, and extracurricular language learning opportunities. These facets of language teaching and learning present substantial challenges, which are often encountered in primary English education [50]. One particularly critical aspect is the expertise of teachers, encompassing their proficiency in English, both in terms of oral fluency and language knowledge, as well as their ability to employ appropriate pedagogical strategies suitable for the age group they teach [53]. The choice of learning materials is another crucial factor, often determined by school administration and budget considerations [49]. In the case of Chile, where the teaching of English is not compulsory in the first four years of primary school, these challenges significantly influence the manner in which Chilean children have been learning English over the past decade [22,25,26].

2.1. Recent Empirical Studies of Motivation and Attitude of YLLs

In a study comparing intrinsic motivation for learning in general and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Japanese primary schools, Carreira [41] found, through a multiple-regression analysis, that curiosity is a predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental motivation. Additionally, he found that enjoyment is a positive predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, and that given the low R values, there are other influential factors that need to be explored, such as learning experiences. These findings are consistent with Jin et al.’s study [44], which showed that Chinese YLLs were highly influenced by positive learning experiences which made them feel happy and excited when taking part in interactive and playful methods.

In Denmark, two studies were carried out with 1st- and 3rd-grade students. One of these studies [39] addressed motivations and attitudes towards EFL, finding that children enjoyed real-life situations, variation, and differentiation in English lessons. It also showed that high achievers were motivated by engaging in gaming and watching YouTube videos in English. The other study [5] looked at the socio-affective factors in relation to EFL proficiency after a year of instruction. Its results showed that while both groups seemed to have a similar rate of learning, first graders relied more on external authorities (e.g., parents and teachers) as a source of motivation.

Some studies have attempted to establish a connection between the type of task and EFL motivation and attitude, confirming the link between learning experiences and these factors. For instance, Kopinska and Azkarai [45] conducted a study to investigate the potential of dictogloss tasks in altering the motivation of a group of young Spanish learners towards their EFL lessons. They found that this type of task fostered a positive attitude, particularly when children worked in pairs. In a study conducted in the UK, Owen and Thomas [54] used carousel-style lessons to motivate and engage children in their FL learning. Their findings suggest that students were highly engaged in completing the activities at each workstation and supported and encouraged each other, demonstrating connections between autonomy and motivation.

Studies involving older learners (aged 14 and above) have shown a tendency towards learning goals related to instrumental and international orientations [55]. Additionally, strong correlations have been observed between learners’ language achievement and their motivation [20]. Furthermore, Leona et al. [56] conducted a quantitative study involving 4th-grade primary school students in the Netherlands to determine whether motivational factors could mediate the relationship between different types of extramural English exposure and YLLs’ vocabulary knowledge. The findings revealed that both familial and entertaining extramural activities are predictors of YLLs’ English vocabulary knowledge. The role of these activities is more prominent in children who learn language informally than in those who attend formal English education.

In terms of motivations and attitudes, most studies involving YLLs’ perspectives are from Europe [6,16,40]. However, some studies conducted in the Asian context have explored children’s perceptions of their motivations to learn English. In Turkey, Asmali [57] conducted a mixed-method study with 2nd-grade primary school students using questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups to explore their motivation and attitudes towards English language learning. The results revealed that most children felt highly motivated to learn and continue learning English. Other factors, such as parents’ expectations, the teacher, the textbooks, and playful activities, positively impacted children’s motivation. Additionally, Demirbulak and Zeyrek [58] used face-to-face and online interviews to explore the motivations and attitudes towards English of second graders in primary school using Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-System [42]. Drawing on the children’s voices, the study presented an overall positive attitude towards English, with preferences for learning through singing and playing. In a Chinese context, Wallace and Leong [59] conducted a qualitative study with children aged 11–12. Using open-ended questionnaires, the authors explored attitudes and purposes for learning English and how YLLs perceived the social support of family, peers, and the teacher, as well as their views of formal English learning through school activities and tasks. The children’s perceptions revealed a highly positive attitude towards learning English for instrumental and integrative reasons, with positive aspects related to the teacher and active engagement through games and songs, which increased their intrinsic motivation.

In the Latin American context, these topics have been underexplored, particularly in Chile, where little is known regarding attitudes, motivations, and foreign language learning in primary classrooms. Recently, Cancino and Ubilla [60] conducted a quantitative study to examine the relationship and impact of age, gender, and L2 proficiency between their native language (L1) and L2 on Chilean primary school children’s reading attitudes (aged 8–12). The results showed no correlation between age, L2 proficiency, and L1–L2 reading attitudes. In terms of gender differences, older girls tended to exhibit more positive attitudes towards recreational reading in their L1.

2.2. Research Objectives

Considering the literature review regarding YLLs’ English learning motivations and attitudes at different points of primary education, the current study aims to identify the variation of motivational and attitudinal variables among Chilean YLLs from 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade who are learning English as part of their primary education. This presents two specific objectives: (1) to determine the internal consistency and reliability of a questionnaire for measuring English language motivations and attitudes among Chilean YLLs from 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade of primary education, following the National Curriculum for EFL; and (2) to identify the relationship between motivational and attitudinal variables and gender, age and teacher profile for these Chilean YLLs. The teacher profile variable considered the teacher, the hours for planning, Primary English Language Teaching (PELT) training, and access to multisensory materials and audio-visual equipment for teaching their EFL lesson.

3. Methods

This research was conducted in November 2022 and April 2023 in two state-run primary schools in two towns in the Concepción area, in the Biobio region. These schools were located in the urban areas of Chiguayante and Hualqui.

3.1. Participants

A total of 137 Chilean primary students from 3rd to 5th grade (8+ to 10+) completed the questionnaire. Most of the participants were 10 years old (N = 53), followed by 9 year-olds (N = 44). Only 19 of the participants were 8 years old and 18 were 11 years old. Of these, 66 identified as boys, 57 as girls and 13 as others.

Most of the participants belonged to School 1 (N = 89) (see

Table 1. Summary of the number of participants by school, by teacher and by grade.

		N	%
Schools	1	89	64.96
	2	48	35.04
Teachers	1 (School 1)	53	38.69
	2 (School 1)	36	26.28
	3 (School 2)	48	35.04
Grade	3rd grade	35	25.55
	4th grade	47	34.31
	5th grade	55	40.15

below), in which there were two teachers (Teacher 1 and Teacher 2). In School 2, there was only one teacher (Teacher 3). Both schools had EFL as part of their primary curriculum, where 5th graders had 135 min of EFL a week while 3rd and 4th graders only had 90 min a week.

Information from the participants’ teachers was also collected through a short survey to be used as part of the teacher profile variables. These included years of teaching experience, training in PELT, hours for planning, and access to audio-visual and multisensory materials. Only Teacher 3 reported having PELT training and access to audio-visual and multisensory materials (

Table 2. Summary of the participants’ teachers’ features by variable.

	T1	T2	T3
Years of experience	21	11	15
Training in PELT	No	No	Yes
Access to multisensory materials	No	No	Yes
Access to audiovisual materials	Laptop	No	Yes
Planning hours	5	3.5	3

).

3.2. Research Instrument

The questionnaire used items from three questionnaires applied in recent studies carried out with YLLs: Fenyvesi [39], Butler and Le [61], and Butler [62]. These sources were chosen as they responded to the theoretical framework of attitudes and motivation as well as relevant adults for YLLS. This survey considered a total of 20 items, which addressed items related to attitudes toward the English language (AE) (4 items) (e.g., I think it’s fun to hear someone speaking English), intrinsic motivation (IM) (5 items) (e.g., I like to listen to music in English), and extrinsic motivation (EM) (3 items) (e.g., I want to get good grades in English), factors related to the Ideal L2 Self (IL2S) (5 items) (e.g., When I grow up, I will surely be good at speaking English), and parent-oriented motivation (POM) (3 items) (e.g., My parents think I can learn English well).

Table 3. Summary of the sources and dimensions considered in the questionnaire design.

Source	Dimension
Fenyvesi [39]	Attitude towards English
	Ideal L2 Self
Butler & Le [61]	Extrinsic Motivation
	Intrinsic Motivation
Butler [62]	Parent-oriented motivation

below shows a summary of the sources used to design the survey (see Appendix A for the complete instrument in English).

Children have been identified as particular population given their development of cognitive, social, and communicative skills. Thus, researchers working with surveys have highlighted the need to design child-appropriate instruments which consider their specific features [63,64,65,66]. For example, Bratož et al. [66] focused on the form, length, language level, memory capacity, and wording of the instrument. Similarly, Hall et al. [67] point out the cautious selection of visual support, as this could impact the reliability of the instrument. Bearing these issues in mind, the traditional five-point Likert scale format was adapted to children’s cognitive maturity, choosing from cups with different levels of fullness (where 1 = completely disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, and 5 = completely agree), as shown in Figure 2 below. This visual support was adapted from the Pots & Bins activity [27,68]. The survey was piloted with five children from 6 to 10 years old to check the wording of the statements.

High scores on the scale indicate that children have a positive motivation and attitude towards learning English.

The questionnaire was distributed by one of the authors in a paper and pencil format, who also assisted and read aloud the questions to the participants. Parents and guardians received an information leaflet regarding the use of the data provided by their children through the questionnaire. They were assured that their responses would be treated confidentially. After they were informed, they were asked to provide written consent for their children to participate in the research. Additionally, children were asked for their consent by colouring thumbs up or down on a separate document before answering the questionnaire (Figure 3).

3.3. Data Analysis

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis evaluated the internal dimensionality of Attitudes toward English, Ideal L2 Self, Extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation, and Parent-oriented motivation using Weighted Least Square Mean and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV) as an estimator owing to items being ordinal variables. A six-factor model fitness was evaluated using χ²-test, χ²/df ratio that compensates the tendency of χ²-test to reject slightly misfitting models, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and a 90% confidence interval, and Standardised Root Mean-Square (SRMR) [61]. The following were used as cut-off values for an acceptable goodness of fit: χ²-test p < 0.005, χ²/df < 2, CFI > 0.95, TLI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.06, and SRMR < 0.08 [69,70].

Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to evaluate reliability of questionnaire measures.

For comparison of motivation and attitude by gender, PELT training, access to multisensory material and audiovisual equipment, the Mann–Whitney U test was used. The relationship of motivation and attitude with age, hours of planning and years of teaching experience was assessed with Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient. For comparison by teacher and grade, the Kruskal–Wallis H-test using Dunn’s post hoc contrast was used. Non-parametric tests were used as the scores did not meet the assumption of normality. A value of p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Confirmatory factor analysis was performed in MPlus 8.6. The rest of the analyses were performed in JASP 1.17.2.1 for Intel processors.

4. Results

4.1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The chi-square test rejected the data fit, Chi2(160) = 224.104; p < 0.001. However, this test tends to reject slightly misspecified models in large samples owing to its power. Therefore, it was complemented with other tests that showed an adequate data fit with a CFI = 0.976, TLI = 0.972, SRMR = 0.055, and RMSEA = 0.054 (95% CI 0.036–0.070).

The factorial structure, as well as its factorial loadings, are displayed in Figure 4.

4.2. Internal Consistency and Descriptive Statistics

To estimate the reliability in terms of internal consistency of the scores, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was employed. The results for the five factors ranged from 0.66 to 0.83, indicating acceptable reliability for their use in research (see

Table 4. Results for the descriptive analysis for the Attitude and Motivation scale for primary education students.

	Attitude towards English	Ideal L2 Self	Intrinsic Motivation	Extrinsic Motivation	Parent-Oriented Motivation
Cronbach’s α	0.74	0.83	0.78	0.77	0.66
Mean	3.195	2.940	3.331	4.112	3.961
Std. Deviation	1.101	1.170	1.090	0.918	1.082
Median	3.500	3.000	3.400	4.333	4.333
MAD	0.750	1.000	0.800	0.667	0.667
IQR	1.750	1.800	1.600	1.333	1.333
Skewness	−0.294	−0.029	−0.406	−1.417	−1.171
Kurtosis	−0.941	−0.986	−0.767	2.085	0.782
Shapiro-Wilk	0.955	0.959	0.955	0.844	0.850
p-value of Shapiro-Wilk	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001
Minimum	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
Maximum	5.000	5.000	5.000	5.000	5.000

).

Subsequently, the score for each factor was computed using the average of its items. The five obtained scores displayed negatively skewed distributions, particularly in the factors of extrinsic motivation and parent-oriented motivation (skewness > 1). These latter two scores exhibited leptokurtic distributions, indicating a high concentration of scores, while the other three factors showed platykurtic distributions. The results in kurtosis and skewness aligned with the Shapiro–Wilk normality test, which demonstrated that the five scores were statistically different from a normal distribution.

Regarding their behaviour, students reported higher levels of extrinsic motivation (Md = 4.333) and parent-oriented motivation (Md = 4.333), while the lowest score was obtained for Ideal L2 Self (Md = 3.000).

4.3. Relationship between Motivational and Attitudinal Variables towards English According to Students’ Gender, Age and Teacher Profile

Statistically significant differences were found only between males and females in attitude towards English (AE) (W = 1488.5; p < 0.05) and parent-oriented motivation (POM) (W = 1218.5; p < 0.05), with females displaying higher scores than males, as depicted in Figure 5.

The age of the students did not exhibit a statistically significant relationship with any of the motivational and attitudinal factors.

EFL Teacher profile variables considered the teacher, the hours for planning, PELT training, access to multisensory materials and audio-visual equipment for teaching their EFL lesson.

Regarding the differences by teacher, statistically significant differences were found in attitudes towards English (H = 7.996; p < 0.5) and extrinsic motivation (EM) (H = 9.44; p < 0.01), with students of Teacher 2 displaying significantly lower scores compared to those of Teacher 3, as shown in Figure 6.

No significant differences were found in the motivational and attitudinal variables based on the grade they were enrolled in for any of the five factors, as depicted in Figure 7

As for PELT training, statistically significant differences were observed in attitudes towards English (W = 1618; p < 0.05), intrinsic motivation (IM) (W = 1675; p < 0.05), and extrinsic motivation (W = 1535; p < 0.05). In these three factors, students taught by the PELT-trained teacher exhibited more positive attitudes, as illustrated in Figure 8 below. However, no significant relationships were found between attitude and motivation, and years of teaching experience.

On the other hand, students whose teacher had access to multisensory materials displayed more positive motivation and attitude towards English in three of the five factors, attitude towards English (W = 1618.0; p < 0.05), intrinsic motivation (W = 1675.5; p < 0.05), and extrinsic motivation (W = 1535.0; p < 0.05), as depicted in Figure 9.

Additionally, more positive attitudes and motivations were found among those whose teacher reported having access to audio-visual equipment for English instruction in attitude towards English (W = 1318.5; p < 0.05), extrinsic motivation (W = 1327.5; p < 0.05), and parent-oriented motivation (W = 1397.0; p < 0.05), as illustrated in Figure 10.

Finally, the teachers’ assigned planning hours did not exhibit a statistically significant relationship with motivational and attitudinal variables.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

The findings show significant relationships between motivational and attitudinal variables and gender and teacher profile of Chilean YLLs from 3rd, 4th, and 5th-grade learning English at school.

In regard to the latter, the findings show that children whose teacher has PELT training and access to multisensory and audio-visual materials show higher motivation and better attitude towards learning EFL. Thus, it could be inferred that because the teacher reported having access to these materials, she might use them, in contrast to those who do not have access to these resources. These results are consistent with previous studies, in which teacher expertise and English language learning conditions are primarily associated with the sustainability of motivation over time, and extracurricular language learning opportunities [7,48,49,52,71].

Children’s learning experiences directly impact, or act as a catalyst for, their intrinsic motivation [31,32]. In alignment with the SDT model, the data from this study reveal that YLLs’ intrinsic motivations are heightened when they attend English lessons with a teacher who can provide access to audiovisual and multisensory materials, age-appropriate tasks, and who has undergone PELT training. These factors significantly influence the level of motivation children attain in learning English, enabling them to transition along the continuum from extrinsic motivation (learning English for getting good grades, pleasing parents, travelling abroad) to a more intrinsic motivation (feeling an inner satisfaction or joy for learning). This shift opens opportunities for children to remain motivated to learn English beyond the classroom, addressing their autonomy. According to McEown and Oga-Baldwin [72], fostering learning in classroom contexts involves teachers promoting the development of children’s inner psychological resources by supporting their autonomy, giving them structure, and facilitating space for interpersonal interactions with their students. These classroom practices are instrumental in feeding learners’ needs regarding autonomy, competence, and relatedness, ultimately nurturing autonomous motivation and fostering intrinsic goals for learning English.

Additionally, these findings illustrate the relevance of considering equal access to appropriate resources for early language learning, such as multisensory and audio-visual materials. Furthermore, the study shows that teachers working in PELT face their professional duties in different conditions, which may impact their learners’ language learning experiences. The scant reference in the Chilean Curriculum proposal to the conditions of teaching and learning is addressed by Barahona [9], who argues that the goal of teaching English from 1st to 4th grade appears ambitious and disconnected from the challenging realities present in today’s Chilean classrooms. Moreover, Barahona [9] suggests that the Chilean market economy influences the consideration of English as a valuable asset for accessing economic progress, which would be a justification for implementing EFL as part of early primary education. In a similar case, Enever [7] analyses early language education efforts in Uruguay, India and Shanghai, unveiling the challenges involved in establishing equity in the delivery of early language education, particularly in situations where broader historical and political factors have played a role in creating disadvantage.

In regards to gender, this study shows female learners displaying positive motivation and attitude toward learning EFL, with higher scores in the questionnaire. Studies with older learners also show similar findings. For example, in a study focused on the relationship between the attitudes and motivation of secondary EFL learners and their willingness to listen, Akdemir [73] found that “gender affects EFL learners’ attitudes and motivation. Female participants’ mini-AMTB scores were found to be higher than those of male participants” (p. 75). Similarly, in another study with secondary students, Sabiq et al. [74] showed that female students had higher average scores on the four constructs of attitudes and motivation. Finally, a study carried out with elementary learners in Japan [75] found that female learners showed better quality motivation to learn language, with higher intrinsic regulation. All the aforementioned studies, including the current one, understand gender and language learning as culture blind because they regard gender as an unchanging, contextually independent variable [76] (p. 135). Unfortunately, the implications of gender differences regarding motivational and attitudinal variables seem still vague in the literature. Thus, an exploration of a more critical perspective, in which gender is used as an independent variable, could be needed.

Even when these findings are relevant and provide valuable information, this study presents some limitations; therefore, any assertion of causality should be approach with caution. One of the weaknesses was the scope, as this study considered only two state-run schools from the same city. It would have been interesting to explore the perceptions of learners from private schools, or from other territories in which multiple languages are present, such as native languages or home languages different from Spanish.

Despite these limitations, the findings presented indicate the need to ensure equal access to resources as well as systematise local teachers’ expertise after a decade of implementation of the primary EFL curriculum proposal. These actions could allow them to share pedagogies that create meaningful learning experiences.