Service Learning for Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in Higher Education: Proposals for Pre-Service (Language) Teacher Education

Abstract

Service learning, an educational methodology that intertwines community service with academic instruction, is garnering growing recognition within higher education due to its potential to enrich both research and outreach efforts. By integrating service learning into the curriculum, higher education institutions (HEIs) can bridge the gap between research and praxis, effectively bringing research findings to local communities and influencing on-the-ground practices. While the benefits of service learning have been widely acknowledged in the literature, there remains a lack of understanding on how service learning can be integrated into teacher education programmes to support linguistic and cultural diversity at schools. Additionally, there is limited insight into how institutions engaged in social action perceive their collaboration with HEIs, particularly in the context of teacher education. In this contribution, we address these gaps, by presenting the results of a multimethod and multisite research study that aimed to explore the perspectives of social action initiatives on the potential collaboration with HEIs to promote (language) teacher education focused on linguistically and culturally responsive practices. The results point to a great heterogeneity of social action projects and expectations on the part of the institutions regarding collaboration with HEIs. Despite this diversity, common principles of collaboration emerge from the data. These principles lay the foundations for a framework that may shape collaborative efforts between HEIs and social action initiatives in the field of pre-service (language) teacher education with the goal of promoting pedagogies that respect and leverage linguistic and cultural diversity in multilingual settings.

1. Introduction

Service learning (SL) is gaining increased attention in higher education as an educational approach that combines community service with academic instruction [1]. It is a method of teaching and learning that integrates meaningful community service with academic learning objectives, critical thinking, and reflective thinking, thus highlighting the social transformative potential of higher education. Activities typically involve students working in partnership with a community or non-profit organisation to address a specific community need or social issue. SL has demonstrated a diverse array of benefits for students, faculty, and the wider community, such as improved student learning outcomes, enhanced civic engagement, and increased awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity [2].

SL is particularly beneficial in teacher education programmes, as it seems to reduce the gap between theory and practice, allowing pre-service teachers to experience real-world problems that confront schools and societies [3,4]. It is acknowledged that by integrating SL into teacher education programmes we can promote teachers’ civic engagement and service action. More specifically, SL may be valuable for language teachers, since it gives them a firsthand understanding of the community, its language(s) and its culture(s), inspiring them to strive for a more inclusive and responsive learning environment [5,6].

Expanding on this research, this contribution is developed within the scope of the Erasmus Plus Project BOLD (“Building on Linguistic and Cultural Diversity for Social Action within and beyond European Universities”), which aims at bridging the gap between pre-service (language) teacher education and civil society engagement. This is performed by (i) supporting active citizenship and engagement of pre-service teachers through the development of subject knowledge and competencies leading to socially responsible action, and (ii) promoting collaboration between higher education institutions (HEIs) and Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) through the implementation of joint projects that cater for linguistic and cultural diversity. This collaboration is particularly crucial as some European countries are currently witnessing a general shortage of teachers, caused by or allied to a potential de-professionalisation of the teaching job [7], a poor image of the teaching profession, and a questioning of the social relevance of the knowledge and skills developed and transmitted by educational institutions [8].

This paper theoretically aims to discuss the concept of SL and its relationship to social action, focusing on its relevance in pre-service teacher education programmes, in general, and in language teacher education, more specifically. Using a multi-method and multisite research design [9,10], we map SL and social action initiatives engaging with linguistic diversity in five European countries (France, Germany, Portugal, Spain and The Netherlands), through desk research and analysis, a survey, and focused roundtables with service action associations. Through this research, we aim to gain insights into the needs, opportunities, and challenges of integrating SL into teacher education programmes within these national contexts. The findings suggest that SL, focused on the promotion of linguistic and cultural diversity, could represent a potentially novel approach in (language) teacher education, grounded in research, practical application, and advocacy efforts.

2. Conceptual Background

In this section, we advocate for teacher education programmes to prioritise practice-based (pedagogical) knowledge rooted in real-world classroom contexts and community settings. This implies that, through SL experiences, pre-service teachers can acquire practical knowledge, as well as develop attitudes and skills that are relevant and useful for their professional practice. Specifically, we highlight the importance of integrating theoretical frameworks addressing linguistic and cultural diversity into the curriculum, alongside practical classroom strategies tailored to diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This holistic approach not only fosters a deeper understanding of teachers’ role as educators and of local community needs but also promotes more adaptive and responsive teaching practices.

2.1. Service Learning in Higher Education

Increasingly, communities are calling for individuals who actively champion social justice, leveraging their skills and enthusiasm to advance initiatives aimed at building a more inclusive and equitable society. To meet these evolving needs, HEIs must reevaluate their mission and activities, traditionally focused on research and teaching, by prioritising the education of responsible citizens over mere career preparation. As evidenced by Aramburuzabala [11], “the challenge for European higher education is to reconsider its mission: to educate students for a life as responsible citizens, instead of training students solely for a career. Its function must be to educate competent professionals connected to the needs of the community. It is necessary to combine academic rigor for the development of professional skills with social commitment. In this way, the new university will connect theory with practice to face social problems” (p. 6).

Along these lines, SL has emerged as a valuable strategy to equip students not only with career-oriented skills but also with the competencies necessary to navigate the complexities and uncertainties of a globalised world as committed citizens. SL emphasises the integration of community service and active involvement in addressing social issues within educational experiences [12], thereby emphasising the importance of serving society alongside the other core missions of universities: human development and knowledge creation and transfer.

SL is “a practice that links community service with learning activities and learning activities with community service” [1] (p. 13). In its principles and methodologies, SL is said to be close to experiential learning “a broad range of activities that centre on the intentioned process of learning where experience [is constituted] as a form of knowledge” [13] (p. 1). SL provides students with a structured opportunity to participate in service activities designed to meet community needs locally or in an international context [14]. This engagement encourages students to reflect on their experiences, enhancing their comprehension of course content, fostering a deeper connection to the subject matter, and nurturing a heightened sense of (global) civic responsibility.

Furco and Norvell [1] highlight numerous advantages of integrating SL into higher education, including improvements in academic learning, personal development, social and intercultural understanding, and career development, among others. In a systematic literature review [15], the benefits of SL implementation in higher education are emphasised for students, faculty members, and community members involved in SL projects. For students, research indicates gains in communication, autonomy, teamwork, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, social awareness, and civic responsibility, with the experiential learning environment enhancing their understanding of real-world issues and inspiring the application of theoretical knowledge to practical solutions. Faculty members benefit from enhanced ability to design effective learning activities, increased self-efficacy in addressing community needs, and opportunities for action research to improve course applicability. Community members often receive free consultation, training, mentoring, and psychological support, contributing to their personal growth, cognitive development, and awareness of social justice issues. Finally, several scholars note that SL fosters collaboration between students, HEIs, and non-profit organisations, therefore yielding unparalleled rewards for the whole community.

Salam et al. [15] further note that SL has been employed across various academic disciplines, with a primary emphasis on medical and nursing sciences, followed by business and economics, computer science and information systems, social studies, teacher education, and linguistic and environmental disciplines. In the subsequent section, we explore the specific role of SL in teacher education, particularly its impact on fostering linguistic and cultural diversity.

2.2. Service Learning for Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in Teacher Education

Teacher education has emerged as a domain wherein SL serves as a valuable pedagogical resource [16,17]. In SL projects pre-service teachers often participate in teaching activities within community settings. These may involve tasks such as tutoring at local schools or conducting educational workshops in community centres. These experiences allow them not only to apply theoretical knowledge acquired in their coursework but also to gain valuable insights into the needs of diverse learners, community dynamics, and various instructional methodologies and learning strategies [4,17]. Reflecting on these experiences further enhances their understanding and equips them with the necessary skills to navigate the complexities of teaching in diverse contexts.

In the early 1990s, a range of studies indicated the positive impact of SL on acquiring various competencies and fostering commitment and empathy among aspiring professionals. Notably, several of these studies provided recommendations for the integration of SL into teacher education curricula. The 1998 Eric Digest report [18] on this subject further illuminates the accomplishments associated with the involvement of pre-service teachers in SL programmes. Through participation, teachers honed skills in planning and communication with parents and representatives, experienced improved self-esteem and self-efficacy, developed positive attitudes toward community engagement, and exhibited heightened social involvement.

Earlier investigations, such as the comprehensive field review conducted by Root et al. [19], chronicle numerous qualitative studies establishing connections between SL and the acquisition of competencies and dispositions essential for effective teaching. These studies underscore the development of sensitivity to diversity issues and a commitment to the teaching profession. In an extensive quantitative research endeavour undertaken by the aforementioned authors, encompassing a sample of pre-service teachers from six SL programs, a notable percentage of participants reported transformative changes in their perspectives on teaching and students as a direct outcome of their SL experiences.

More recent studies underscore these benefits, further illuminating the multifaceted relationship that exists between SL and linguistic and cultural diversity in (language) teacher education programmes [17], which forms the core focus of our study. One such study, conducted by Buchanan and colleagues [20], involved a large group of pre-service teachers in California who provided support to economically disadvantaged and multicultural children in two elementary schools. These pre-service teachers engaged in several activities, such as one-on-one tutoring in the classroom during lessons, leading small group instruction, and providing support on the playground during breaks. An analysis of their journal reflections revealed that they increased their intercultural awareness in multiple contexts, including linguistic diversity, socioeconomic challenges, and home culture norms. Moreover, they developed an enhanced capacity to recognise and address learners’ different needs.

Similar results were found in an SL experience developed by Porto [5] in Argentina with pre-service teachers of English. These students carried out a project in a non-governmental organisation, teaching workshops using intercultural literature in English to underserved children aged 8–12 from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The study suggests that the SL experience was transformative for both the children and the student teachers, stimulating personal change and change in the community. In particular, the children developed their English language skills, gained a sense of self-assertion and pride, and learned to take small actions in their context, such as creating awareness-raising posters. For the pre-service teachers, the experience fostered a sense of agency and an understanding of how to integrate a social justice agenda into their teaching.

These results highlight the potential of using SL as an approach in (language) teacher education, which could be summarised as follows: firstly, SL provides opportunities for teachers to engage directly with diverse communities, including those with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Through these interactions, pre-service teachers acquire direct experience in navigating linguistic and cultural diversity, developing their intercultural awareness, as well as a greater understanding, empathy, and appreciation for the different linguistic and cultural repertoires of their students [5,6,20]. Secondly, SL often involves projects or initiatives aimed at addressing social issues within these diverse communities, such as limited access to education, healthcare, social services, or information in general. Language and cultural barriers can be significant factors contributing to these issues, namely for minoritised community members and for those with migrant backgrounds. By actively participating in service projects, pre-service teachers can act as cultural workers [21], who contribute to cultural and social change, empowering diverse communities to overcome these barriers and address their own needs. Additionally, SL encourages pre-service teachers to reflect critically on their role, as well as their own cultural perspectives and assumptions, fostering a more linguistically and culturally responsive approach to education [22,23].

Overall, research suggests that SL is a border-crossing experience [21], providing a practical and transformative platform for pre-service teachers to engage with linguistic and cultural diversity, promote social justice, equity, and inclusion, and develop their own identity as social actors and agents of change.

3. Empirical Study

As outlined in the introduction, this study was conducted as part of the Erasmus+ project BOLD—Building on Linguistic and Cultural Diversity for social action within and beyond European universities. The objective of this research is to understand the needs, possibilities, and challenges associated with incorporating SL for linguistic and cultural diversity into teacher education programmes across various European settings from the perspective of social action initiatives based in France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands. In this section, we provide an overview of the BOLD project and detail the methodology employed for data collection and analysis.

3.1. The BOLD Project

BOLD is a European project promoting diversity in teacher education by connecting HEIs and institutions offering education in informal and non-formal settings. The possibilities of connection to the community and institutions outside the university are important, because, as Kubota [24] explains,

“sharing scholarly knowledge with people in the real world may be enabled by seeking and grabbing the opportunities to get connected with communities outside of the academic bubble and work collaboratively with stakeholders. These spaces can include local community organizations, community activities, local businesses, school boards, government organizations, and more. Critical scholars can strive to build relationships with local residents and leaders and strategically share critical ideas about language, language education, and language policies”.

(p. 16)

In order to close the “research-practice gap” [24], BOLD’s primary goals are to allow all partner HEIs (in France, Germany, Greece, Portugal, Spain, and The Netherlands) to expand the social relevance and commitment of their activities through connection to civil society. The project bridges the gap between pre-service teacher education and engagement in civil society by (i) supporting pre-service teachers’ active citizenship and civic engagement through the development of professional knowledge and competencies leading to social action, and (ii) promoting collaboration between HEIs and CSO through the implementation of joint SL and social action projects advocating for linguistic and cultural diversity.

The project focuses on nurturing the professional skills of pre-service teachers, guided by two core principles: firstly, fostering active commitment (“savoir s’engager”, as outlined by Byram (1997) [25] and activism for a more sustainable linguistic and cultural future; and, secondly, enhancing linguistic and cultural skills to support heightened social activism. BOLD empowers pre-service teachers to make informed decisions regarding social action as engaged citizens. By engaging pre-service teachers in practice-oriented studies and participatory action research, BOLD endeavours to equip them with the necessary skills to champion linguistic diversity. By doing so, BOLD aims to bridge “the divide between knowledge production and social contribution” [24] (p. 10) and stop the “misalignment between multilingual scholars’ knowledge generation and the impact of their research on local practices” [24] (p. 10).

Within the framework of this European project, the initial analysis focused on mapping institutions engaged in social action related to linguistic and cultural diversity, irrespective of their previous experience with SL. The primary objective of this initial task was to assess the potential for collaboration between these social action initiatives and the partner universities. In the following section, we outline the methodology employed for data collection and the corpus under analysis.

3.2. Methodology for Data Collection and Instruments

As stated in the introduction and because of the international nature of the project, we developed a multimethod and multisite methodology. A multimethod research study usually uses multiple research methods to investigate a particular research question or phenomenon, the data being analysed separately, and the results triangulated afterwards [9]. This approach acknowledges that different methods may provide complementary insights or perspectives, thus enhancing the multi-perspectivity and complexity of the study. In the case of the BOLD project, we conducted a desk analysis of available online information, a survey, and roundtable discussions.

The study was developed as a multisite research endeavour [10], which entailed conducting research in the different countries participating in the BOLD project. This approach enabled us to examine similar phenomena (service action institutions) across different geographical locations, linguistic and cultural contexts, organisational settings, and demographics. Although our primary intention was not to generalise findings across these varied contexts, we sought to uncover variations or patterns that might emerge across different sites, in order to grasp the feasibility of implementing SL in HEIs in BOLD partner countries.

Between April and June 2023, the consortium mapped 58 social actions deemed pertinent for pre-service teachers in addressing the linguistic and cultural diversity within their future classrooms and in promoting students’ civic engagement. These social actions were identified by the five higher education partners of the consortium through a combination of internet searches and a snowball sampling method, starting from researchers’ networks and existing connections with the teacher education departments and institutes of the consortium partners.

Data regarding these social action initiatives were systematically organised in an Excel file, capturing essential details, such as a short description outlining the missions and objectives of each social action; the nature of the institutions (NGOs, HEIs, knowledge hubs, foundations, companies, cultural and language centres, associations, museums, networks, and communities of practice); the stakeholders involved and any collaboration with other organisations; target groups; and a brief summary of their relationship with linguistic and cultural diversity.

As anticipated, the gathered social action initiatives exhibited significant diversity, encompassing variations in scope, objectives, and stakeholders involved, connections to linguistic and cultural diversity, as well as their level of experience collaborating with HEIs and engaging in SL initiatives.

To gain further insights into the motivations driving social action initiatives related to linguistic and cultural diversity, as well as civic engagement, the BOLD consortium administered an online survey. This survey featured open-ended questions designed to elicit detailed responses from the 58 identified institutions. The survey was composed of nine questions, as outlined in

Table 1. The online survey.

Questions
1. Please briefly describe the vision and mission statement at the root of your social action project/initiative/organisation.
2. Could you please provide a few examples of concrete activities conducted by your social action initiative/organisation?
3. What are the target groups of your social action initiative/organisation?
4. What types of collaborators, volunteers, or employees does your social action project/initiative/organisation have?
5. What are the roles of linguistic and cultural diversity in your social action initiative/organisation?
6. To what extent do you already work with a university or another higher education institution?
7. If you do not cooperate with a university, how would you envision students or university lecturers contributing to your social action/organisation?
8. Would you be willing to stay in touch with the BOLD project and participate in a roundtable about the societal importance of your initiative/organisation?
9. Is there something you would like to add or mention in relation to your social action project/initiative/organisation?

.

The survey was completed by 30 social action initiatives: ten from Spain, nine from the Netherlands, seven from Portugal and four from Germany.

To facilitate a deeper understanding of the potential benefits and challenges associated with the institutionalisation of SL to foster linguistic and cultural diversity, as well as civic engagement, the BOLD consortium organised eight roundtable discussions. These brought together representatives from the social action initiatives identified in the earlier research stages, who had responded to the online survey, along with relevant stakeholders including students and teacher educators.

Table 2. Roundtable discussions with social action representatives.

Country/Context	Date	Form
Netherlands	20 April 2023	Online
	1 August 2023	Online
Spain	26 April 2023	Onsite
	13 June 2023	Online
Portugal	26 April 2023	Onsite
	17 May 2023	Onsite
France	14 April 2023	Online
	12 May 2023	Online

provides an overview of these roundtables.

During each roundtable session, representatives of social action initiatives were invited to address four specific topics: a description of the social action initiative; its role in a context of increasing linguistic and cultural diversity; examples of actions, projects and activities developed to promote linguistic and cultural diversity; preconditions and aspirations regarding collaboration with HEIs in SL initiatives.

Following presentations of each social action initiative, which facilitated the exchange of best practices between them and HEIs, and the identification of collaboration needs, panel discussions were held to share perspectives on the strengths and weaknesses of collaborations. All roundtable discussions were video recorded, and each partner subsequently produced a report summarising the key discussions (totalling eight reports).

3.3. Methodology for Data Analysis

The description of the corpus in the preceding section reveals its significant heterogeneity, both in terms of its sources and its nature and typology [9]. The data originated from three distinct sources and were collected in different languages and formats (written and oral, online and onsite). Data were translated into English and then re-checked and discussed in a peer debriefing exercise involving all analysts to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings. Overall, data underwent content analysis [10] by each team, employing specific thematic categories tailored to each type of data (websites, online surveys and oral roundtable discussions). This approach was crucial for triangulating the data.

The first set of data was sourced from online platforms, namely the website of the social action initiatives, and underwent content analysis using a standardised analysis matrix shared among all the analysts. The analysis of this dataset proceeded in two stages: firstly, the content of each website was systematically compiled into a predefined template for analysis; and secondly, a cross-sectional (qualitative and quantitative) content analysis was carried out.

Data collected from the survey consisted of responses to open-ended questions and underwent content analysis, considering the expressed needs of the participating institutions. Categories of analysis included the aims and scope of the activities, the presence and focus of partnerships with other institutions (including HEIs), and approaches to linguistic and cultural diversity.

Data obtained from the roundtable discussions conducted both online and onsite, were subjected to content analysis across three primary categories: identified needs, challenges and perceived opportunities for cooperation with HEIs.

4. Findings

The findings presented in this section are informed by Gerritsen et al. [26]. Through this paper, our objective is to synthesise the conclusions drawn from the three phases of data collection, aiming to demonstrate the potential of SL initiatives through collaboration with social action initiatives.

4.1. Desk Analysis

Altogether, the BOLD consortium examined 58 noteworthy social action initiatives aimed at preparing pre-service teachers to address linguistic and cultural diversity in their future classrooms while promoting their civic engagement. As anticipated, we observed a remarkable diversity among these initiatives, encompassing variations in scope, objectives, stakeholders involved, and approaches to linguistic and cultural diversity. Moreover, the institutions differed in their level of experience in collaborating with HEIs and implementing SL practices.

To systematically map the different types of social action initiatives, we developed a model. This involved categorising the gathered initiatives using a quadrant model with two axes. One axis spanned from high to low experience with SL, while the other ranged from placing linguistic and cultural diversity at the core of the initiative to positioning it at the periphery or background (Figure 1).

These initiatives were categorised based on their level of interaction with HEIs and their focus on linguistic and cultural diversity. Examples span from initiatives closely associated with HEIs to those predominantly run by volunteers or external organisations. Some initiatives place linguistic and cultural diversity at the forefront of their mission, while others address it more tangentially.

This model can serve as a valuable tool for HEIs to identify appropriate social action initiatives for students based on their prior experiences with linguistic and cultural diversity. For instance, students with limited exposure to multilingual environments may benefit from initiatives deeply integrated into diversity-focused organisations. On the other hand, students with more extensive exposure to multilingual environments might find value in initiatives that address broader aspects of cultural and linguistic diversity.

4.2. Survey

Overall, the social action initiatives involved in the BOLD survey strive to assist various groups, including individuals with disabilities, qualified adults, refugees, and at-risk youth, in their integration into society. This support is often facilitated through direct volunteer engagement or collaborative efforts between organisations. The overarching goal of these initiatives is to promote social inclusion, justice, and active participation for individuals confronting personal challenges. One example of how these overarching goals are specified by respondents can be found in one of the Dutch social actions’ responses to the first question on the vision and mission statement:

Our mission is to increase and improve opportunities for multilingual children to further develop the language(s) they speak at home through an effective educational program. This education should support them in their identity development so that they can grow up confidently and integrate into local society. We aim to promote and improve heritage language education in the X region and beyond.

(NL01)

Some initiatives adopt an educational approach, offering classes and support with schooling or learning in general. Others focus on enhancing literacy skills or language development without specifying particular languages. Only two initiatives explicitly target multilingual students and families, aiming to improve not only their proficiency in the host country’s language but also their native languages. These findings suggest that linguistic and cultural diversity are frequently not the focal points of social initiatives but rather perceived as peripheral aspects related to groups in need of general support.

The survey of 30 social initiatives highlights a broad range of scopes and activities, with many initiatives undertaking multiple types of endeavours such as information dissemination, cooperation, and education. Some initiatives have a specific focus, such as tutoring or connecting volunteers with families or other social action institutions and projects. Approximately half of the initiatives offer ongoing educational programmes, including workshops, language classes, and tutoring. Others organise events or projects around specific themes, provide advisory services, offer public information on education and care, facilitate partnerships, or provide comprehensive care for children and adults encompassing education, living arrangements, and healthcare. One of the Portuguese social actions specifies the following activities:

X is a language and cultural exchange programme for locals, migrants and refugees, where anyone can learn or teach a language. This programme offers two activities: (a) Language and culture groups-12 90-min sessions where migrants, refugees and locals come together to learn a new language and culture. These groups are run by buddies, members of the community who are fluent in the language being practised. (b) Cultural events-cultural exchanges, quizzes, cultural evenings and much more.

(PT06)

According to Gerritsen et al. [26], this array of activities suggests two key points:

• Regarding the duration and possible involvement of the stakeholders, there is a spectrum of activities in which social action initiatives can engage.
• Institutions may opt for a singular focus and specialty, or they may choose to participate in multiple types of activities, contingent on their scope and the expertise of those involved in the action.

The initiatives surveyed in our study establish partnerships with varying scopes and foci. Some prioritise education, while others collaborate with mental health support or care organisations. A few initiatives form partnerships with local institutions such as municipalities, libraries, and economic development initiatives. Three initiatives partner with national agencies, while others connect with fellow institutions or initiatives. Volunteers play a significant role across all initiatives, with some relying entirely on volunteers, while others employ a combination of volunteers and fixed employees. This German social action describes its network of professionals in the following way:

The German X Foundation is one of the largest educational foundations in Germany. We work with over 300 colleagues throughout Germany. We work very operationally along the entire educational biography from nursery school to the transition to work career.

(DE01)

Other initiatives reported relying more on volunteers, as is the case with this Dutch respondent:

The volunteers are mostly students and/or employees of the University. In addition, we work with the COA (Central organ for the reception of asylum seekers). In Utrecht, where there is also a dependence, we cooperate with Refugee Talent Hub.

(NL08)

The surveyed initiatives exhibit a wide range of approaches to linguistic and cultural diversity. While some explicitly aim to address diversity, others merely take it into account, and a few have no specific focus on diversity. In Germany, diversity often remains in the background without a designated role, and certain initiatives maintain a monolingual focus. In Portugal, the majority of initiatives prioritise linguistic and cultural diversity, adopting an asset-based approach. In the Netherlands and Spain, although diversity is acknowledged, initiatives generally do not prioritise public awareness or actively promote linguistic and cultural diversity.

In terms of collaboration with HEIs, the majority of initiatives in Portugal, the Netherlands, and Spain already have some level of engagement with HEIs, whether it be structural or incidental. In Germany, however, collaboration with HEIs is less prevalent and typically centres around research and development. Participants generally express a desire for increased involvement of HEIs in areas such as research, consultation, or training within the realm of social actions.

4.3. Roundtables

The eight roundtable discussions, attended by representatives of social action initiatives located in France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain, as well as relevant stakeholders such as students and teacher educators, facilitated the identification of needs, challenges, and opportunities for integrating SL initiatives into (language) teacher education programmes.

Regarding needs, participants in the roundtable discussions highlighted the critical importance of collaboration and dialogue between HEIs and social action initiatives. They viewed this collaboration as a fundamental basis for the co-design of SL programmes, stressing the need for a collaborative stepwise approach. This approach implies shared leadership and responsibility among all participants involved in co-designing SL programmes and comprises the six steps described below. We provide a few examples of how these steps were described by the participants in the several roundtables:

• Conceptualisation: Engaging in discussions to define key concepts, such as “social action/initiative”, “social intervention”, “citizenship action”, and “civic engagement”, in order to achieve a common understanding of the scope and objectives of SL initiatives.
• Initial diagnosis: Assessing the needs, interests, and goals of HEIs, social action initiatives, and local communities. In relation to this point, a participant in the second Dutch round table mentions the need to map expectations and support participants accordingly:

  Our groups are highly diverse in terms of intellectual substance and cultural backgrounds. Our teacher volunteers may often find themselves in situations they did not anticipate or expect. We need to help them with expectation management.

  (NL, RT2)

• Definition of topics: Collaboratively identifying and prioritising topics of mutual interest among stakeholders, through discussions and brainstorming sessions to explore shared concerns and potential areas for collaboration and knowledge exchange. In a Dutch round table, a representative of one of the initiatives mentioned:

  To prepare our tutors for linguistic diversity we engage in frequent reflection to identify central topics of relevance.

  (NL, RT2)

• Observation and contextual analysis: Guiding students in critically observing and examining the socio-cultural contexts surrounding social action initiatives to identify dynamics, challenges, and opportunities.
• Design and validation: Facilitating participatory processes involving all stakeholders in the co-design and validation of SL projects, using principles of co-creation and collective decision-making to ensure that the project designs reflect the diverse perspectives, needs, and aspirations of the involved parties. A Portuguese initiative representative describes the involvement of manifold stakeholders in shaping their activities:

  The motto of this organization is “Welcoming, accompanying and integrating”. Some activities include buddies for international students attending the University of X; (pedagogical) peer support–mentoring, such as mentoring for success with University X aimed at students from Portuguese-speaking countries; refugee support platform. Most activities are led in partnership with several Departments of the University, with the High Commission for Migrations’.

  (PT, RT1)

• Evaluation of project results: Fostering a culture of collaborative evaluation and reflection among all stakeholders to assess the outcomes, impacts, and lessons learned from SL projects.

The participants in all roundtable discussions placed significant emphasis on the social relevance of SL initiatives and their clear connection to societal challenges, particularly those related to linguistic and cultural diversity (e.g., the integration of migrant and refugee pupils and students). They emphasised that this connection is vital not only for increasing the sustainability and impact of SL initiatives within HEIs, social action initiatives, and communities but also for making them more relevant to students. This was well highlighted by one representative of social action in a Portuguese roundtable:

University students can do internships in X-involvement in animation initiatives, exhibitions, and visits to schools-as to get to know the social problems that exist in the community and think about possible and sustainable solutions.

(PT, RT2)

In line with the importance of social relevance, participants stressed the significance of community engagement as a key requirement. They highlighted the relevance of involving not only HEIs and social action initiatives but also other educational institutions (both formal and informal) and families in SL projects. This Portuguese participant, for example, reinforces how SL takes form in a community of practice and through collaborative responses:

X is a community of practice made up of researchers, primary, secondary and higher education teachers, students, civil society organisations who share common interests in the field of Global Citizenship Education. Its mission is to build collaborative responses to questions related to global citizenship, with a view to social transformation.

(PT, RT2)

Regarding the challenges of integrating SL in (language) teacher education programmes, the participants in all roundtables pointed out the difficulties in integrating SL into curricula. Yet, they also suggested some possibilities to address these challenges, namely:

• Integration into existing course units: SL could be integrated into already existing course units related to pedagogical practice and thematic areas such as interculturality, citizenship, and sustainability. This approach would require demonstrating to teacher educators that SL enables pre-service teachers to apply their content and pedagogical knowledge while developing various transversal competencies such as intercultural, critical, and creative thinking.
• Recognition as an honours programme: SL could be transformed into a course with extra recognition, similar to an honours program, which could be added to students’ curricula vitae.
• Micro-credential course: Another possibility is to offer SL as a micro-credential course, allowing external students to earn extra university credits without committing to an entire BA or MA course.

Another challenge identified in several roundtable discussions pertains to the sustainability and impact of SL initiatives, which may be hindered by the voluntary nature of most social action initiatives and reliance on a few individuals for management, making long-term planning challenging. Additionally, participants agree that it is crucial to move beyond relying solely on the voluntary participation of students and teachers.

While their voluntary involvement is valuable, establishing recognition systems is necessary. Systematically integrating SL into curricula presents opportunities to engage both students already committed to social action and those who are not yet sensitised to it. This approach is considered to increase participation and strengthen the long-term effectiveness of SL initiatives. In line with this, discussions highlighted the need for the establishment of cooperation protocols between HEIs and social action initiatives as a way of institutionalising SL and formalising learning trajectories. In some roundtable discussions, participants emphasised the challenge of creating a clear legislative framework for SL, outlining the terms of collaboration between HEIs and social action initiatives. A participant from a roundtable held in Madrid suggests:

It is recommended to sign a framework agreement between the social entities and the university that should contain a clear identification of the institutional interlocutors responsible for day-to-day management from both the entity and the university. In both cases it sometimes seems difficult to find the information and documentation necessary to manage the agreements and the administrative staff responsible for management. This may affect long-term commitment.

(SP, RT1)

With respect to opportunities offered by the integration of SL in (language) teacher education programmes, participants identified mutual benefits and added value of collaboration. These benefits can be categorised into four main areas:

• Closer connection between HEIs and communities: Integration of SL allows HEIs to become more closely connected to communities and real-life issues, establishing a clear connection between training, research, and extension to society–core missions of universities. During the second Spanish roundtable, a participant highlighted how co-design between HEIs and societal partners supports the integration of cultural diversity:

  The co-design of the Service-Learning programs by entities, communities and researchers facilitates a respectful integration of cultural diversity in society. Cultural diversity takes on new dimensions in the field of Service-Learning. It is understood not only limited to the ethnic or national diversity, but within a much-varied sociological spectrum (religion, age, LGBTQ+, educational results, etc.).

  (SP, RT2)

• Leveraging expertise and know-how: Social action initiatives benefit from the HEI’s expertise and know-how on linguistic and cultural diversity to enhance the effectiveness of their initiatives (and vice-versa).
• Strengthening communities: Communities and their members are strengthened through the identification and resolution of social challenges and increased civic involvement.
• Holistic education for students: Students are offered a critical-humanist education that contributes to the development of a sense of civic responsibility, empathy, a deep understanding of the communities in which they will be called upon to act, the construction of a relationship between theory and practice, and a greater commitment to learning. A participant in the second Dutch roundtable highlights that it is important that students see immediate but also long-term aims in SL experiences:

  The advantages must be clear to students from the start, both what they get out of the Service Learning in terms of immediate credits and grades but also what skills they acquire for the future work as teachers and role models.

  (NL, RT2)

Overall, participants emphasised reciprocal learning as a mutual gain and an outcome of shared responsibilities in the integration of SL in teacher education programmes.

5. Discussion

This study sought to investigate how social action initiatives view the possibility of collaborating with HEIs to advance teacher education focused on linguistically and culturally responsive practices. To this end, a multimethod and multisite research approach was employed, including desk research analysis, a survey, and roundtable discussions with representatives from social action initiatives.

The data analysis reveals that representatives from social action initiatives recognise mutual benefits and added value stemming from collaboration with HEIs, as evidenced in both the survey and roundtable discussions. Participants noted that partnering with HEIs brings expertise and know-how to address real-world challenges, providing valuable learning opportunities for students while fostering closer ties between HEIs and communities. A key finding of our analysis underscores the societal significance of collaborative SL trajectories that prioritise cultural and linguistic diversity. These initiatives are intricately linked to broader societal issues such as social inclusion, justice, and participation across diverse groups. They encompass a range of activities aimed at disseminating information, fostering cooperation, and delivering education through various channels including services, events, consultations, projects, networking, and support services. Roundtable discussions underscored the importance of aligning SL trajectories with pressing societal challenges to maximise their relevance and impact.

The analysed data also pinpoints crucial organisational prerequisites for implementing SL trajectories. Shared responsibilities and a strong commitment between social action initiatives and HEIs are deemed imperative for fruitful collaboration. There is a unanimous agreement on the need for reciprocal learning, with social action initiatives expressing interest in research, consultation, and training, which align well with the educational and scientific goals of HEIs. Tailoring SL projects to address mutual needs could further enhance reciprocal learning. Additionally, mentoring for students, teacher training, and HEI facilitation of SL activities are emphasised as avenues to bolster two-way learning.

Three primary challenges for implementing SL trajectories aimed at promoting diversity and civic engagement in teacher education are identified. These include the voluntary nature of initiatives, complexities associated with formalising collaborations due to bureaucratic constraints, and discrepancies among social action initiatives regarding their approaches to linguistic and cultural diversity. Overcoming these challenges may entail integrating social action objectives into HEI curricula, addressing bureaucratic hurdles, and taking local contexts into account. The collected data also suggests the importance of developing sustainability plans and adopting stepwise approaches to interventions.

Our analysis also underscores the significance of considering national variations in the extent and emphasis of collaboration for diversity promotion among social action initiatives. Collaborative initiatives with HEIs should be tailored to accommodate these differences, requiring flexible coaching and mediation programmes. Flexibility and adaptability are crucial, with recommendations spanning from establishing clear guidelines to adopting stepwise approaches aligned with local contexts. Moreover, proposals include the recognition of SL projects through honours programmes or the issuance of additional certificates and credit points, aiming to seamlessly integrate SL into HEI curricula.

6. Conclusions

In the words of Kubota, “seldom is social relevance or community impact recognized as an integral part of scholarly rigor. These rules of the game are not conducive to social transformation” [24] (p. 11). Echoing Kubota’s concerns, we assert in this paper that integrating SL into pre-service teacher education is a means to foster social transformation and tackle pressing issues of social justice [27] and participation. We specifically highlight the significance of crafting initiatives that respond to the genuine needs of linguistic communities and multilingual societies. Through our analysis and discussion, we advocate for the adoption of place-based teacher education [28], which addresses critical issues such as inclusion, participation, and culturally and linguistically sensitive teaching, thereby ensuring its alignment with the real-world challenges encountered by both community partners and students.

The revision of the literature and the empirical study also seem to indicate a shift in theorisation towards balancing global and local goals in teacher education, focusing on both international issues and local challenges [28]. By adopting SL-led approaches, we can effectively address the complexities of linguistically diverse local communities within the context of the global landscape. Crucial to the success of such initiatives is establishing robust partnerships with community organisations working with diverse communities, ensuring initiatives are grounded in community needs and perspectives.

In this collaborative endeavour, horizontal power relations and co-research processes are pivotal, acknowledging the expertise of all involved parties. Pre-service teachers, faculty, social action initiatives, and community members all play integral roles, acting as both experts and learners, enriching the learning experience for all. More specifically, if the development of professional competencies by pre-service teachers is at the core of SL, then active participation is crucial, namely in the design and planning of projects aimed at nurturing linguistic and cultural diversity.

Incorporating SL into teacher education programmes involves its seamless integration into the curriculum, ensuring that students systematically engage with diversity issues and recognise their impact on the development of professional skills. As revealed in the literature review, engaging in SL provides pre-service teachers with practical experience in real-world settings, thereby deepening their understanding of linguistic and cultural diversity and bolstering their ability to navigate complex social issues [2,4,5,8,28]. Reflection plays a crucial role in the cultivation of these professional skills. Guided reflection, facilitated by both teaching personnel and community partners, enables pre-service teachers to gain insights into diverse perspectives on diversity challenges and to connect their experiences with academic theories and methodologies. For this reason, as suggested by Tinkler et al. (2019) [27], SL might be embedded into teacher education programs, for example, to “supplement the more traditional practica and student teaching placements” (p. 66).

However, our empirical study reveals that a one-size-fits-all approach to integrating SL may not be suitable. Variations in social action activities, goals, administrative (financial) challenges, and experiences with HEIs require tailored approaches. Therefore, flexibility, adaptability, and acknowledgement of diverse needs and contexts are paramount in effectively integrating SL into teacher education programmes as a valuable approach to educating linguistically and culturally responsive educators.