1. Introduction
Coaching is a collaborative process between two individuals, the coach (a professional who assists individuals in developing their potential and achieving their goals) and the coachee (the person receiving assistance from the coach), in which conversation serves as the primary tool [
1]. The coach accompanies the coachee through a process that enhances self-awareness, fosters accountability for learning, and enables the setting and attainment of personal goals [
2]. Implementing a coaching process involves creating an environment through conversation and a way of being that facilitates the successful mobilization of an individual towards achieving his/her desired goals [
3]. As stated by J. Whitmore [
4] (page 8): “Coaching is unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them”. Therefore, it can be asserted that coaching is based on the premise that each individual is capable of finding their own answers and solutions. Through powerful questioning, reflections, and exercises, the coach assists the coachee in exploring their beliefs, challenging their limitations, and developing new skills [
4].
Although there are influences and related practices dating back to ancient Greece and philosophers such as Socrates and Plato [
5], the origins of coaching as it is seen nowadays can be traced back to the 1960s. Initially, it emerged in the sports domain, emphasizing the importance of mindset, focus, and personal awareness in performance [
6]. From the 1980s onwards, coaching expanded beyond sports and found application in the business and professional spheres. Pioneers such as J. Whitmore [
7] and T. J. Leonard [
8] contributed to defining and establishing the foundations of coaching as a discipline for personal and professional development, a legacy that remains relevant and current today. A few decades later, building on positive outcomes in sports [
3], personal, and professional realms [
8], coaching diversified into various branches, including life coaching [
9], business coaching [
10], team coaching [
11], health and personal well-being coaching [
12], and educational coaching [
13].
Educational coaching (also referred to as coaching in education) can be briefly defined as a process that consists of establishing a set of mechanisms (e.g., one-to-one conversation, structured interviews) that enable the coachee to stimulate the competence of learning to learn (i.e., self-directed learning) in a supportive and encouraging scenario [
13,
14]. Note that educational coaching aims to be employed throughout an educational system’s community (i.e., teachers, students, management/administrative staff) to enhance its well-being and assist in achieving its goals [
13]. Hence, educational coaching seeks methodological changes that allow for a different approach to teaching and learning. In this context, not only academic results matter, but also the maturation of teachers and students, enabling them to take responsibility for their own teaching and learning, become aware of their reality, and improve or enhance their skills [
15]. In summary, the overarching goal of educational coaching is to help people within an educational environment taking ownership and personal responsibility of their educational journey by identifying their strengths, setting and achieving specific goals, enhancing their learning strategies, and developing skills such as time management, critical thinking, or self-regulation.
Although coaching strategies in educational coaching do not typically differ much from the ones used in coaching in other domains (i.e., despite the application domain is different and so it is their implementation, the coaching strategies have similar core fundamentals), it is worth emphasizing that in the educational coaching domain, the following two strategies are of paramount relevance [
16,
17]: (1) trust between the coach and the coachee, which includes for instance, showing empathy, being transparent, building trust, active listening, and (2) modeling skill development, which includes for instance, modeling praise statements versus corrective statements, providing effective feedback, asking open-ended questions, celebrating success, and setting goals.
Similarly, it is possible to identify three models [
4] for educational coaching in the literature. (1) Directive coaching: a directive coach observes the coachee and provides concrete direction based on her/his experience. (2) Non-directive coaching: the coachee is the one who provides specific direction based on what she/he wants to improve. (3) Collaborative coaching: the coach and the coachee are in a situation of equality, where both agree to create an action plan that allows the objectives to be met. These three models (i.e., directive coaching, non-directive coaching, and collaborative coaching) can use specific tools of educational coaching such as the GROW model, the SMART model, the FUEL model, the CLEAR model, the OSKAR model, co-teaching, co-planning, effective feedback, real-time coaching, data-driven instructional strategies, video demonstration, video coaching, peer–coach–peer observations, observations, and modeling [
18].
This work focuses on the coaching of university and postgraduate students. Indeed, coachees in undergraduate educational scenarios have unique characteristics that differentiate them from other coaching application domains:
The academic performance (in terms of final grades, competencies acquired, the ratio of passed subjects versus enrolled subjects, the amount of credits passed, the variance of the obtained grades, etc.) of adolescent students, which is one of the main aspects that coaching aims to maximize, has been a subject of study over the years and is likely to maintain its popularity for many more [
19,
20]. It has been studied from several dimensions, ranging from a posteriori analyses [
21] to predictive modeling [
22,
23], including extrinsic macro-economic analyses [
24].
Another aspect to be considered in the undergraduate education is the student dropout rate [
25], which is another aspect that coaching aims to minimize [
26,
27].
It is worth noting that although most authors define academic dropout as the cessation of studying by the student in the programs they were enrolled in [
25], there are variations in this definition. For instance, Grau-Valldosera and Minguillón, 2014 [
28], considered different perspectives on academic dropout, including the “theoretical pause”, where students temporarily interrupt their studies with the intention of resuming them later. These more nuanced definitions that some authors use allow for a more precise understanding of the various student behaviors related to academic dropout.
According to the March 2022 report from the Ministry of Universities [
21], in Spain, the dropout rate in physical on-campus education universities stands at 13.5%, while for virtual education universities, it rises to 53.4% [
29]. It is worth mentioning the significance of the dropout rate in higher education for policymakers, as it has a potentially considerable social and economic impact in the medium and long term [
25].
Coachees in educational environments for young adolescents are rapidly evolving. On the one hand, some studies suggest that students are taking longer to mature, necessitating closer monitoring mechanisms [
30], which are crucial in a society where individualism and egocentrism are becoming central aspects of youth personality [
31]. On the other hand, authors such as Bauman, with his concept of liquid society [
32], Damasio, linking emotion and reason [
33], and Mora, emphasizing the impact of empathy and curiosity on learning [
34], have highlighted the need for complementary learning mechanisms and tools that better suit emerging students [
35]. Coaching is envisaged as a powerful alternative to address this situation.
The purpose of this literature review is to synthesize and evaluate the existing research on educational coaching for university students, with the goal of addressing the following three dimensions: (1) the effects of coaching on academic performance, (2) the impact of coaching on reducing academia dropout rates, and (3) the selected tools for the disciplines where educational coaching is being applied. As a result, this study seeks to provide a comprehensive overview, identify knowledge gaps, and offer recommendations for future research and practice, ultimately enhancing the understanding and implementation of educational coaching to improve students’ academic outcomes and reduce academic dropout rates.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
Section 2 outlines the research methodology of the presented literature review. Next,
Section 3 presents the obtained results. Then,
Section 4 discusses the main findings of this work and answers the proposes research and mapping questions. Finally,
Section 5 concludes the paper and proposes some research directions.
2. Research Methodology
The aim of this article is to conduct a literature review [
36] of the existing literature on the use of educational coaching in higher education. This review will identify the various applications of educational coaching and evaluate studies that explore the use of coaching tools to address the challenges related to academic performance and students’ dropout rates.
To accomplish this objective, this work grounds in the guidelines proposed by Kitchenham [
37], aiming to identify gaps and research opportunities within the field of educational coaching. This approach involves formulating a set of pertinent research questions and assessing the relevant studies in the literature.
2.1. Existing Literature Reviews
Before conducting a literature review, it is necessary to ensure that no other reviews in the same field of study have already been completed.
To address this, the existing literature in two research databases was explored: the Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases. After selecting these search engines, the query was defined to find records published before 1 May 2024. Given that the field of study is coaching in education, the following five query search strings for the fields
Title,
Abstract, and
Keywords were specified: “
Education AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)”, “
Learning AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)”, and “
Mentoring AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)”. Note that the term mentoring was added to the search string since “Mentoring” is sometimes (mistakenly) used as a synonym of coaching [
38].
These three queries aimed to obtain an initial qualitative idea of the distribution of the records and have better control of the output. The obtained results are outlined in
Table 1.
Once the initial results were obtained, further manual filtering (for instance, removal of duplicates) and abstract reading were performed to identify those records that (1) specifically pertain to the educational domain, (2) genuinely conduct a review of the existing literature, and (3) focus on coaching within universities. This resulted in the following six contributions:
Ramos et al., in their work “
Applications of Educational Coaching: A literature review of research published during 2013–2017” [
14], conducted a literature review on educational coaching from 2013 to 2017 and analyzed its main areas. They classified educational coaching into seven domains: coaching for the entire educational community, coaching with students at different non-university educational levels, coaching with university and postgraduate students, coaching in teacher training, coaching for training university students, peer coaching, and coaching with school administrative/management teams.
Mahdi et al., in their work “
Navigating the landscape of academic coaching: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis” [
39], performed a bibliometric analysis of articles published between 1987 and 2023 on educational coaching to identify the leading authors, research patterns, critical points, and research topics in the field. Mahdi et al., concluded that emerging research areas include the effectiveness of coaching in education, academic coaching as support in online learning, and professional learning communities.
Burleigh et al., in their work “
Coaching and teaching performance in higher education: A literature review” [
40], conducted a literature review aimed at identifying best practices for coaching with faculty in higher education. They considered faculty evaluation and coaching practices, specifically addressing the quality and timeliness of feedback provided by faculty. The review concluded with a series of recommendations suggesting that planning for coaching could be addressed in the learning institutions’ strategic goals.
Cushion and Townsend, in their work “
Technology-enhanced learning in coaching: A review of literature” [
41], analyzed the effectiveness of coaching in training coaches through technology using 64 articles. The review employed a critical methodology based on systematic review principles. It revealed that the use of technology in coaching requires more longitudinal studies that consider the learner (i.e., student), as the effectiveness of using technology in coaching appears to be in an early stage of maturity.
Pleschová and McAlpine, in their work “
Enhancing university teaching and learning through mentoring: A systematic review of the literature” [
42], examined 17 relevant articles related to tutoring, mentoring, and coaching, noting that their definition and use in the literature are often confusing.
Toh et al., in their work “
The role of mentoring, supervision, coaching, teaching and instruction on professional identity formation: A systematic scoping review” [
43], conducted a systematic review on the role of tutoring, supervision, coaching, teaching, and instruction in the formation of professional identity. The study included 207 articles, of which just seven were related to coaching for improving academic competencies.
It can be seen that despite the fact coaching in education has been explored from several dimensions [
14] in the literature [
42] and there is a wide agreement on its positive benefits [
39,
40], its specific impact on students’ academic performance and/or dropout is still unclear [
41,
42,
43]. Therefore, this research proposes to address the following objectives:
Evaluate whether educational coaching for university students increases academic performance.
Assess whether educational coaching for university students reduces academic dropout rates.
Analyze the various fields of application of educational coaching and their associated tools for university students.
2.2. Scope of the Review
These objectives will guide the formulation of research questions and their corresponding mapping questions, which will drive the review method to contextualize, frame, and answer them effectively. In this regard, the following research questions (RQs) have been defined:
RQ1. Does educational coaching for university students increase academic performance?
RQ2. Does educational coaching for university students reduce academic dropout rates?
RQ3. How is educational coaching applied to university students?
Mapping questions (MQs) allow for a more precise specification of each research question, thereby clarifying the desired outcomes.
For RQ1, the following mapping questions have been defined:
MQ1.1 What dimensions of academic performance are considered when assessing the impact of educational coaching?
MQ1.2 What approaches are applied through educational coaching to increase academic performance?
For RQ2, the following mapping questions have been defined:
MQ2.1 What are the main causes of academic dropout found in the literature and how can they be addressed by coaching?
MQ2.2 What approaches are applied through educational coaching to reduce dropout rates?
For RQ3, the following mapping questions have been defined:
MQ3.1 What tools of educational coaching are used with university students?
MQ3.2 To coach a large population of individuals, what is the impact of group coaching on university students?
2.3. Database Selection
Once the mapping questions are defined, it is necessary to determine the information sources for the articles to be included in the search process. The databases used to answer the research and mapping questions are as follows:
Web of Science (
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/basic-search (accessed on 2 February 2024)): This platform, developed by Clarivate Analytics, consists of a wide collection of bibliographic databases, citations, and references for scientific publications across various disciplines. It provides bibliographic information and allows for the evaluation and analysis of the performance and scientific quality of research.
Scopus (
https://www.scopus.com/sources.uri (accessed on 2 February 2024)): Scopus uniquely combines a comprehensive database of citations and abstracts selected by experts with enriched data and linked academic literature across a wide range of disciplines.
These databases have been chosen based on the following criteria: (1) accessibility from our university, (2) capability to perform comprehensive searches or searches within specific fields (e.g., Title, Abstract, and Keywords), (3) availability of filtering options, and (4) relevance in the fields of engineering and education research.
2.4. Search Strings
After selecting the different databases, a set of search strings was defined to properly answer the aforementioned RQs and their associated MQs.
“Academic performance” AND “Coaching”. This query string targets studies exploring the impact of coaching on students’ academic performance, directly addressing RQ1 (Does educational coaching for university students increase academic performance?).
“Academic dropout” AND “Coaching”. This query string focuses on literature examining how coaching interventions may influence student retention, which is pertinent to RQ2 (Does educational coaching for university students reduce academic dropout rates?).
“Academic dropout” AND “Causes”. Including the word “Causes” allows us to identify studies that discuss the reasons behind academic dropout, providing context and background for understanding the role of coaching in addressing these issues.
“Applications” AND “Educational Coaching”. This broader query is aimed to help us capture a wide range of studies on how educational coaching is implemented, contributing to RQ3 (How is educational coaching applied to university students?).
“University Students AND “Coaching”. This query string ensures our focus remains on the higher education context, capturing relevant studies specific to university students.
“Students” AND “Group Coaching”. Since group coaching is a significant aspect of our review, this string aims to find studies discussing group coaching dynamics and outcomes.
These search strings were refined through trial searches and consultations with subject matter experts to ensure comprehensiveness and relevance. By systematically combining these terms, we aimed to capture the full scope of literature relevant to our RQs, ensuring a thorough and robust review of the application of coaching in the university context, with a focus on academic performance and student dropout.
2.5. Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria
To limit the scope of the search, the following exclusion and inclusion criteria were applied to the results of the query search strings:
Articles published between 2003 and 2023 (both included). This period was chosen because, according to the Scopus and Web of Science databases, it is when most articles on educational coaching were published. This was achieved by limiting the search scope in the databases.
Articles classified under the areas of “Social Sciences and Engineering” in Scopus and “Education Scientific Disciplines” and “Education Research” in Web of Science. This was achieved by filtering the search scope in the databases.
Articles focusing on academic coaching with students in higher education. This was achieved by reading the abstract of the obtained records.
Considering these inclusion and exclusion criteria, the number of results obtained is shown in
Table 2. In the columns Total Records, we can see the total results obtained, and in the columns Matching Records, we can see the results filtered according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
2.6. Quality Evaluation Criteria
To ensure objectivity in the selection process of articles, a selection criterion was employed, as suggested by Kitchenham and Charters’ guidelines [
44]. A quality checklist was applied to each one of those matching records (i.e., candidate studies) that met the aforementioned exclusion and inclusion criteria.
The checklist consisted of several questions that can be answered with Yes/Partially/No, which helps to exclude articles that do not meet the required standards. The formulated questions were as follows:
Are the used data extracted by means of a robust procedure?
Are the used data adequately described?
Is the experiment described in the article conducted in the real world?
Does the document describe the methodology used?
Is the objective of the experiment clearly stated?
Are the variables and actors of the experiment described?
As shown in
Figure 1, from the 12,601 articles initially found, 1496 were screened. Of these, 1090 were excluded using search filters, and 406 were screened for an initial eyeball assessment. Three hundred thirty-nine were excluded due to the fact that the abstract did not provide convincing arguments that they would provide insightful information related to the proposed RQs and MQs. Thus, 67 were left ultimately for accurate reading, and 36 were included in this review.
4. Discussion
This section provides a general overview of the insights collected during the review process and answers the proposed research and mapping questions stated in
Section 2.
4.1. General Overview
In this work, a review of the existing literature on educational coaching with university students has been conducted. Research and mapping questions were formulated to facilitate the creation of queries necessary for searching the Web of Science and Scopus databases. From the initial 12,601 results, the abstracts of 406 articles were ’eye-balled’, selecting 67 articles for cross-reading. Finally, 36 relevant articles (see
Table 3) were identified that address the main methodologies of educational coaching applied to university students, their effects on academic performance, the causes of dropout, and the various coaching methodologies that help reduce it.
The analysis identified several dimensions related to educational coaching for university students: (1) individual versus group, (2) academic performance, (3) causes of academic dropout, (4) field of application, and (5) coaching tools. The obtained results are summarized in
Table 4.
In the first dimension (individual versus group), we have seen that the vast majority of studies focus on individualized coaching. However, research that combines group and individual coaching sessions is emerging. Some examples of this non-individual (i.e., group) approach have been reported by Pertegal-Felices and Jimeno-Morenilla, 2011 [
66], who suggested that the use of discussion forums reduces course dropouts and improves academic performance, which somehow shares the same goals as educational coaching. This work might be the inspiration of Xu et al., 2021 [
77] when they applied (although individually) peer coaching outside the classroom. Marius et al., 2014 [
62] employed project-based learning alongside coaching sessions to foster responsibility and confidence in students. Finally, Reynolds, 2020 [
67] suggested that group coaching sessions have the potential to enhance individual coaching sessions.
In the second dimension (i.e., academic performance), several articles reporting that individual academic coaching improves academic performance under certain specific conditions were found [
20,
26,
46,
51,
53,
55,
56,
64,
65,
69,
73]. However, there is insufficient evidence in the literature to support that group coaching improves student outcomes.
In the third dimension (i.e, causes of academic dropout), articles identifying the main causes of dropout among university students were analyzed. The causes vary according to the field of study. Articles like those by De la Cruz-Campos et al., 2023 [
52] and Lorenzo et al., 2023 [
60] attribute dropout to low academic performance, socioeconomic level, student–teacher relationships, and emotional state. It is suggested that educational coaching could be an effective strategy to address these causes. However, other articles, such as that by Santos-Villalba et al., 2023 [
72], indicate that some causes, such as unmet academic expectations, teaching methodologies not aligned with the student, and simultaneous work activities, are less likely to be mitigated through educational coaching.
In the fourth dimension (i.e., field of application), it was observed that educational coaching is applied in different fields of knowledge. Numerous studies exist on the application of coaching in medicine [
46,
54,
61,
64], distance education [
28], architecture [
49], engineering [
53,
62,
65,
66,
71,
73,
78], economny [
58], and social sciences [
57,
72,
74].
In the fifth dimension (i.e., coaching tools), the resources for implementing educational coaching are generally not detailed in the articles, as coaches apply them as they identify the needs of the coachee. Some of the coaching tools sporadically mentioned in the reviewed articles are as follows:
The Wheel of Life [
2]: A graphical tool that allows the coachee to evaluate different important aspects of their life. Aspects such as health, interpersonal relationships, personal growth, finances, spirituality, and leisure are reflected in the wheel, and the coachee assesses their level of satisfaction with each aspect. This tool is explicitly mentioned by [
35].
Creative Visualization [
80]: The coachee is invited to visualize the desired future within a specific time frame. The intention of this technique is to define clear goals that allow achieving that future. Another version of this tool is proposed by Ballesteros and Valls [
81], which involves using a quadrant to note what one wants to achieve, what needs to be incorporated, what should be let go, and how to find the necessary energy to do so.
Powerful Questions [
82]: This is one of the essential tools in coaching. The coach uses open-ended and personalized questions that allow the coachee to reflect, with the intention of challenging limiting beliefs and advancing in their process.
Active Listening [
83]: A fundamental skill in coaching necessary to formulate the most appropriate powerful questions for the coachee and better identify their needs.
SWOT Analysis [
2]: Allows the analysis and evaluation of an individual’s current situation, representing their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to their goals.
360-Degree Feedback [
84]: In this technique, information is gathered from various sources close to the coachee (friends, superiors, and family members), providing a broader perspective. Instead of receiving feedback from the coach, in this technique, the coachee receives comments from those close to them.
4.2. Answering the Research and Mapping Questions
All 36 articles were analyzed to identify the contributions that address the formulated research questions and mapping questions (see
Section 2.2).
Table 5 shows the number of articles that address each one of the topic categories related to the proposed RQs and MQs. It can be seen that there are topics that are largely covered such as the use of coaching tools in universities, while some other topics seem to have little presence in the literature (e.g., group coaching in universities). The answer to each one of the proposed MQs (see
Section 2.2) obtained from the analysis of the records resulting from the literature review process is presented in what follows.
Although the articles highlight various benefits of educational coaching, when it comes to academic performance, the primary focus is on the student’s short-term evaluation (e.g., midterms and semesters), specifically their grades and the successful completion of the courses in which they are enrolled. Thus, we can conclude that academic performance is directly related to the academic results reflected in the student’s transcript.
Various educational coaching approaches have been proven effective in improving academic performance. Most of these approaches focus on individualized coaching sessions with students. The number of sessions varies considerably, typically ranging from 4 to 10 per student. These sessions target specific goals, personalized study strategies, and the development of cognitive and emotional skills. In addition to individualized sessions, some methodologies incorporate seminars or group coaching sessions to maximize impact. Peer coaching, both inside and outside the classroom, is also a notable strategy. It allows students to use coaching as a tool to develop emotional competencies, facilitating mutual support and collaborative learning.
The causes of academic dropout are multifaceted and vary according to the field of study and the student’s profile. However, most research agrees on several common causes: poor academic performance, socioeconomic status, and the student’s emotional state. These causes are interdependent and often influence each other. Additionally, some studies highlight additional factors, such as the lack of alignment between academic expectations and the reality of the study program, inadequate teaching methodologies, and the simultaneous pursuit of studies and work, which can significantly contribute to academic dropout.
The tools and methodologies of educational coaching that help reduce dropout rates are closely related to those that improve academic performance (see answer to MQ1.2). Among these, individualized coaching sessions stand out for their effectiveness. These methodologies not only address academic difficulties but also focus on emotional and motivational aspects, providing comprehensive support to the student. However, the scalability of individual coaching (i.e., addressing a large number of coachees) has been identified as a major barrier to apply it systematically [
61].
According to the reviewed papers, there are no specific tools uniquely used for the educational coaching domain. In fact, authors reported that to enhance both academic performance and personal development, they use the regular tools of coaching such as the Wheel of Life, which allows students to evaluate their satisfaction with different aspects of their lives such as health, relationships, and personal growth; Creative Visualization, which helps students define clear objectives by visualizing their desired future; Powerful Questions, which encourage reflection and challenge limiting beliefs; Active Listening, which ensures the coach can identify the student’s needs effectively; SWOT Analysis, which helps analyze the student’s current situation by outlining their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats; 360-Degree Feedback, which gathers insights from multiple sources close to the student, providing a comprehensive view of their performance and areas for improvement.
Group coaching, although its implementation is less common (25% of the studies included in this review) compared to individual coaching, shows promising results when used as a complement to individual coaching. The reviewed studies indicate that group coaching reinforces the actions undertaken in individual tutoring sessions by providing a space for interaction and mutual support among students. This not only improves group cohesion and the sense of belonging but also enhances the impact of individual coaching sessions, facilitating deeper and more sustainable learning.
Therefore, it can be confirmed that educational coaching for university students can increase academic performance (RQ1), reduce academic dropout rates (RQ2), and is mostly applied in an individual approach (RQ3).
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, this literature review reveals that educational coaching, in its various forms, has a significant positive impact on academic performance and student retention in university settings. The different coaching approaches stand out for their effectiveness in addressing both academic and emotional challenges faced by students. However, the implementation of coaching in educational scenarios poses two major concerns in terms of resources that limit the scalability of this method: coaching knowledge and available time. On the one hand, few teachers have the required knowledge (and often the necessary skills) to act as coaches. This limits the number of coaches in an educational facility and, inherently, the number of students that can be coached. On the other hand, it has been reported that one of the critical success factors of educational coaching is the time in which the coaching sessions take place. For instance, there is a huge effectiveness difference in coaching students right after they receive the grades of an exam or doing it a month later. Therefore, if a coach has a long line of students waiting to be coached, there will probably be a considerable group of them that will fall outside the optimal time window in which they need to be coached.
Although further research is needed to fully understand the impact of group coaching, it seems that it may have great potential to address these two concerns that are inherent to educational environments. It would be interesting to conduct more research specifically on group coaching, as it could potentially minimize the resources allocated to coaching sessions, which typically need to be applied at specific times to have the desired impact.