A Literature Review on Coaching Methods for Tutoring Students in Undergraduate Education

Abstract

Recently, the integration of coaching methodologies within educational environments has garnered significant attention due to their potential to enhance student learning outcomes and overall academic performance. While the literature extensively examines the effectiveness of coaching in a plethora of scenarios (e.g., sports, business, and entrepreneurship), there remains a notable research gap regarding its application within undergraduate educational environments, where coachees have unique characteristics in terms of background, age/maturity, resources availability, and population size. This literature review aims to address this gap by synthesizing existing research on the implementation of coaching strategies in educational settings and how they can cope with a large number of students. Through a comprehensive analysis, this study elucidates the current state of knowledge, identifies prevailing methodologies, and evaluates the outcomes associated with employing coaching techniques in group contexts. Moreover, this work explores the potential benefits and challenges of utilizing coaching strategies in group sessions, offering insights into their scalability and applicability within diverse educational settings. The findings of this review underscore the importance of further research in this domain to advance our understanding of how coaching methodologies can be effectively adapted to facilitate collaborative learning experiences and promote student success on a broader scale. Ultimately, this study advocates for the integration of group coaching approaches as a promising avenue for enhancing the efficiency and accessibility of traditional tutoring and mentoring practices in education.

1. Introduction

Coaching is a collaborative process between two individuals, the coach (a professional who assists individuals in developing their potential and achieving their goals) and the coachee (the person receiving assistance from the coach), in which conversation serves as the primary tool [1]. The coach accompanies the coachee through a process that enhances self-awareness, fosters accountability for learning, and enables the setting and attainment of personal goals [2]. Implementing a coaching process involves creating an environment through conversation and a way of being that facilitates the successful mobilization of an individual towards achieving his/her desired goals [3]. As stated by J. Whitmore [4] (page 8): “Coaching is unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them”. Therefore, it can be asserted that coaching is based on the premise that each individual is capable of finding their own answers and solutions. Through powerful questioning, reflections, and exercises, the coach assists the coachee in exploring their beliefs, challenging their limitations, and developing new skills [4].

Although there are influences and related practices dating back to ancient Greece and philosophers such as Socrates and Plato [5], the origins of coaching as it is seen nowadays can be traced back to the 1960s. Initially, it emerged in the sports domain, emphasizing the importance of mindset, focus, and personal awareness in performance [6]. From the 1980s onwards, coaching expanded beyond sports and found application in the business and professional spheres. Pioneers such as J. Whitmore [7] and T. J. Leonard [8] contributed to defining and establishing the foundations of coaching as a discipline for personal and professional development, a legacy that remains relevant and current today. A few decades later, building on positive outcomes in sports [3], personal, and professional realms [8], coaching diversified into various branches, including life coaching [9], business coaching [10], team coaching [11], health and personal well-being coaching [12], and educational coaching [13].

Educational coaching (also referred to as coaching in education) can be briefly defined as a process that consists of establishing a set of mechanisms (e.g., one-to-one conversation, structured interviews) that enable the coachee to stimulate the competence of learning to learn (i.e., self-directed learning) in a supportive and encouraging scenario [13,14]. Note that educational coaching aims to be employed throughout an educational system’s community (i.e., teachers, students, management/administrative staff) to enhance its well-being and assist in achieving its goals [13]. Hence, educational coaching seeks methodological changes that allow for a different approach to teaching and learning. In this context, not only academic results matter, but also the maturation of teachers and students, enabling them to take responsibility for their own teaching and learning, become aware of their reality, and improve or enhance their skills [15]. In summary, the overarching goal of educational coaching is to help people within an educational environment taking ownership and personal responsibility of their educational journey by identifying their strengths, setting and achieving specific goals, enhancing their learning strategies, and developing skills such as time management, critical thinking, or self-regulation.

Although coaching strategies in educational coaching do not typically differ much from the ones used in coaching in other domains (i.e., despite the application domain is different and so it is their implementation, the coaching strategies have similar core fundamentals), it is worth emphasizing that in the educational coaching domain, the following two strategies are of paramount relevance [16,17]: (1) trust between the coach and the coachee, which includes for instance, showing empathy, being transparent, building trust, active listening, and (2) modeling skill development, which includes for instance, modeling praise statements versus corrective statements, providing effective feedback, asking open-ended questions, celebrating success, and setting goals.

Similarly, it is possible to identify three models [4] for educational coaching in the literature. (1) Directive coaching: a directive coach observes the coachee and provides concrete direction based on her/his experience. (2) Non-directive coaching: the coachee is the one who provides specific direction based on what she/he wants to improve. (3) Collaborative coaching: the coach and the coachee are in a situation of equality, where both agree to create an action plan that allows the objectives to be met. These three models (i.e., directive coaching, non-directive coaching, and collaborative coaching) can use specific tools of educational coaching such as the GROW model, the SMART model, the FUEL model, the CLEAR model, the OSKAR model, co-teaching, co-planning, effective feedback, real-time coaching, data-driven instructional strategies, video demonstration, video coaching, peer–coach–peer observations, observations, and modeling [18].

This work focuses on the coaching of university and postgraduate students. Indeed, coachees in undergraduate educational scenarios have unique characteristics that differentiate them from other coaching application domains:

• The academic performance (in terms of final grades, competencies acquired, the ratio of passed subjects versus enrolled subjects, the amount of credits passed, the variance of the obtained grades, etc.) of adolescent students, which is one of the main aspects that coaching aims to maximize, has been a subject of study over the years and is likely to maintain its popularity for many more [19,20]. It has been studied from several dimensions, ranging from a posteriori analyses [21] to predictive modeling [22,23], including extrinsic macro-economic analyses [24].
• Another aspect to be considered in the undergraduate education is the student dropout rate [25], which is another aspect that coaching aims to minimize [26,27].
  It is worth noting that although most authors define academic dropout as the cessation of studying by the student in the programs they were enrolled in [25], there are variations in this definition. For instance, Grau-Valldosera and Minguillón, 2014 [28], considered different perspectives on academic dropout, including the “theoretical pause”, where students temporarily interrupt their studies with the intention of resuming them later. These more nuanced definitions that some authors use allow for a more precise understanding of the various student behaviors related to academic dropout.
  According to the March 2022 report from the Ministry of Universities [21], in Spain, the dropout rate in physical on-campus education universities stands at 13.5%, while for virtual education universities, it rises to 53.4% [29]. It is worth mentioning the significance of the dropout rate in higher education for policymakers, as it has a potentially considerable social and economic impact in the medium and long term [25].
• Coachees in educational environments for young adolescents are rapidly evolving. On the one hand, some studies suggest that students are taking longer to mature, necessitating closer monitoring mechanisms [30], which are crucial in a society where individualism and egocentrism are becoming central aspects of youth personality [31]. On the other hand, authors such as Bauman, with his concept of liquid society [32], Damasio, linking emotion and reason [33], and Mora, emphasizing the impact of empathy and curiosity on learning [34], have highlighted the need for complementary learning mechanisms and tools that better suit emerging students [35]. Coaching is envisaged as a powerful alternative to address this situation.

The purpose of this literature review is to synthesize and evaluate the existing research on educational coaching for university students, with the goal of addressing the following three dimensions: (1) the effects of coaching on academic performance, (2) the impact of coaching on reducing academia dropout rates, and (3) the selected tools for the disciplines where educational coaching is being applied. As a result, this study seeks to provide a comprehensive overview, identify knowledge gaps, and offer recommendations for future research and practice, ultimately enhancing the understanding and implementation of educational coaching to improve students’ academic outcomes and reduce academic dropout rates.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 outlines the research methodology of the presented literature review. Next, Section 3 presents the obtained results. Then, Section 4 discusses the main findings of this work and answers the proposes research and mapping questions. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper and proposes some research directions.

2. Research Methodology

The aim of this article is to conduct a literature review [36] of the existing literature on the use of educational coaching in higher education. This review will identify the various applications of educational coaching and evaluate studies that explore the use of coaching tools to address the challenges related to academic performance and students’ dropout rates.

To accomplish this objective, this work grounds in the guidelines proposed by Kitchenham [37], aiming to identify gaps and research opportunities within the field of educational coaching. This approach involves formulating a set of pertinent research questions and assessing the relevant studies in the literature.

2.1. Existing Literature Reviews

Before conducting a literature review, it is necessary to ensure that no other reviews in the same field of study have already been completed.

To address this, the existing literature in two research databases was explored: the Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases. After selecting these search engines, the query was defined to find records published before 1 May 2024. Given that the field of study is coaching in education, the following five query search strings for the fields Title, Abstract, and Keywords were specified: “Education AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)”, “Learning AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)”, and “Mentoring AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)”. Note that the term mentoring was added to the search string since “Mentoring” is sometimes (mistakenly) used as a synonym of coaching [38].

These three queries aimed to obtain an initial qualitative idea of the distribution of the records and have better control of the output. The obtained results are outlined in

Table 1. Results of the query search strings to find existing literature reviews of coaching in education.

Query Search String	Number of Records Scopus	Number of Records WoS
Education AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)	625	3448
Learning AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)	563	1599
Mentoring AND Coaching AND (literature OR review)	139	528

.

Once the initial results were obtained, further manual filtering (for instance, removal of duplicates) and abstract reading were performed to identify those records that (1) specifically pertain to the educational domain, (2) genuinely conduct a review of the existing literature, and (3) focus on coaching within universities. This resulted in the following six contributions:

• Ramos et al., in their work “Applications of Educational Coaching: A literature review of research published during 2013–2017” [14], conducted a literature review on educational coaching from 2013 to 2017 and analyzed its main areas. They classified educational coaching into seven domains: coaching for the entire educational community, coaching with students at different non-university educational levels, coaching with university and postgraduate students, coaching in teacher training, coaching for training university students, peer coaching, and coaching with school administrative/management teams.
• Mahdi et al., in their work “Navigating the landscape of academic coaching: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis” [39], performed a bibliometric analysis of articles published between 1987 and 2023 on educational coaching to identify the leading authors, research patterns, critical points, and research topics in the field. Mahdi et al., concluded that emerging research areas include the effectiveness of coaching in education, academic coaching as support in online learning, and professional learning communities.
• Burleigh et al., in their work “Coaching and teaching performance in higher education: A literature review” [40], conducted a literature review aimed at identifying best practices for coaching with faculty in higher education. They considered faculty evaluation and coaching practices, specifically addressing the quality and timeliness of feedback provided by faculty. The review concluded with a series of recommendations suggesting that planning for coaching could be addressed in the learning institutions’ strategic goals.
• Cushion and Townsend, in their work “Technology-enhanced learning in coaching: A review of literature” [41], analyzed the effectiveness of coaching in training coaches through technology using 64 articles. The review employed a critical methodology based on systematic review principles. It revealed that the use of technology in coaching requires more longitudinal studies that consider the learner (i.e., student), as the effectiveness of using technology in coaching appears to be in an early stage of maturity.
• Pleschová and McAlpine, in their work “Enhancing university teaching and learning through mentoring: A systematic review of the literature” [42], examined 17 relevant articles related to tutoring, mentoring, and coaching, noting that their definition and use in the literature are often confusing.
• Toh et al., in their work “The role of mentoring, supervision, coaching, teaching and instruction on professional identity formation: A systematic scoping review” [43], conducted a systematic review on the role of tutoring, supervision, coaching, teaching, and instruction in the formation of professional identity. The study included 207 articles, of which just seven were related to coaching for improving academic competencies.

It can be seen that despite the fact coaching in education has been explored from several dimensions [14] in the literature [42] and there is a wide agreement on its positive benefits [39,40], its specific impact on students’ academic performance and/or dropout is still unclear [41,42,43]. Therefore, this research proposes to address the following objectives:

• Evaluate whether educational coaching for university students increases academic performance.
• Assess whether educational coaching for university students reduces academic dropout rates.
• Analyze the various fields of application of educational coaching and their associated tools for university students.

2.2. Scope of the Review

These objectives will guide the formulation of research questions and their corresponding mapping questions, which will drive the review method to contextualize, frame, and answer them effectively. In this regard, the following research questions (RQs) have been defined:

• RQ1. Does educational coaching for university students increase academic performance?
• RQ2. Does educational coaching for university students reduce academic dropout rates?
• RQ3. How is educational coaching applied to university students?

Mapping questions (MQs) allow for a more precise specification of each research question, thereby clarifying the desired outcomes.

For RQ1, the following mapping questions have been defined:

• MQ1.1 What dimensions of academic performance are considered when assessing the impact of educational coaching?
• MQ1.2 What approaches are applied through educational coaching to increase academic performance?

For RQ2, the following mapping questions have been defined:

• MQ2.1 What are the main causes of academic dropout found in the literature and how can they be addressed by coaching?
• MQ2.2 What approaches are applied through educational coaching to reduce dropout rates?

For RQ3, the following mapping questions have been defined:

• MQ3.1 What tools of educational coaching are used with university students?
• MQ3.2 To coach a large population of individuals, what is the impact of group coaching on university students?

2.3. Database Selection

Once the mapping questions are defined, it is necessary to determine the information sources for the articles to be included in the search process. The databases used to answer the research and mapping questions are as follows:

• Web of Science (https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/basic-search (accessed on 2 February 2024)): This platform, developed by Clarivate Analytics, consists of a wide collection of bibliographic databases, citations, and references for scientific publications across various disciplines. It provides bibliographic information and allows for the evaluation and analysis of the performance and scientific quality of research.
• Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/sources.uri (accessed on 2 February 2024)): Scopus uniquely combines a comprehensive database of citations and abstracts selected by experts with enriched data and linked academic literature across a wide range of disciplines.

These databases have been chosen based on the following criteria: (1) accessibility from our university, (2) capability to perform comprehensive searches or searches within specific fields (e.g., Title, Abstract, and Keywords), (3) availability of filtering options, and (4) relevance in the fields of engineering and education research.

2.4. Search Strings

After selecting the different databases, a set of search strings was defined to properly answer the aforementioned RQs and their associated MQs.

• “Academic performance” AND “Coaching”. This query string targets studies exploring the impact of coaching on students’ academic performance, directly addressing RQ1 (Does educational coaching for university students increase academic performance?).
• “Academic dropout” AND “Coaching”. This query string focuses on literature examining how coaching interventions may influence student retention, which is pertinent to RQ2 (Does educational coaching for university students reduce academic dropout rates?).
• “Academic dropout” AND “Causes”. Including the word “Causes” allows us to identify studies that discuss the reasons behind academic dropout, providing context and background for understanding the role of coaching in addressing these issues.
• “Applications” AND “Educational Coaching”. This broader query is aimed to help us capture a wide range of studies on how educational coaching is implemented, contributing to RQ3 (How is educational coaching applied to university students?).
• “University Students AND “Coaching”. This query string ensures our focus remains on the higher education context, capturing relevant studies specific to university students.
• “Students” AND “Group Coaching”. Since group coaching is a significant aspect of our review, this string aims to find studies discussing group coaching dynamics and outcomes.

These search strings were refined through trial searches and consultations with subject matter experts to ensure comprehensiveness and relevance. By systematically combining these terms, we aimed to capture the full scope of literature relevant to our RQs, ensuring a thorough and robust review of the application of coaching in the university context, with a focus on academic performance and student dropout.

2.5. Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria

To limit the scope of the search, the following exclusion and inclusion criteria were applied to the results of the query search strings:

• Articles published between 2003 and 2023 (both included). This period was chosen because, according to the Scopus and Web of Science databases, it is when most articles on educational coaching were published. This was achieved by limiting the search scope in the databases.
• Articles classified under the areas of “Social Sciences and Engineering” in Scopus and “Education Scientific Disciplines” and “Education Research” in Web of Science. This was achieved by filtering the search scope in the databases.
• Articles focusing on academic coaching with students in higher education. This was achieved by reading the abstract of the obtained records.

Considering these inclusion and exclusion criteria, the number of results obtained is shown in

Table 2. Total number of records and number of matching records with the inclusion and exclusion criteria found for each query search string in the Scopus and Web of Science databases.

Query Search String	Scopus		Web of Science
	Total Records	Matching Records	Total Records	Matching Records
Academic performance AND Coaching	360	80	1224	219
Academic dropout AND Coaching	13	3	23	7
Academic dropout AND Causes	233	36	299	89
Applications AND Educational Coaching	247	41	926	209
University Students AND Coaching	1083	265	5432	2245
Students AND Group Coaching	1103	240	1658	630

. In the columns Total Records, we can see the total results obtained, and in the columns Matching Records, we can see the results filtered according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

2.6. Quality Evaluation Criteria

To ensure objectivity in the selection process of articles, a selection criterion was employed, as suggested by Kitchenham and Charters’ guidelines [44]. A quality checklist was applied to each one of those matching records (i.e., candidate studies) that met the aforementioned exclusion and inclusion criteria.

The checklist consisted of several questions that can be answered with Yes/Partially/No, which helps to exclude articles that do not meet the required standards. The formulated questions were as follows:

• Are the used data extracted by means of a robust procedure?
• Are the used data adequately described?
• Is the experiment described in the article conducted in the real world?
• Does the document describe the methodology used?
• Is the objective of the experiment clearly stated?
• Are the variables and actors of the experiment described?

As shown in Figure 1, from the 12,601 articles initially found, 1496 were screened. Of these, 1090 were excluded using search filters, and 406 were screened for an initial eyeball assessment. Three hundred thirty-nine were excluded due to the fact that the abstract did not provide convincing arguments that they would provide insightful information related to the proposed RQs and MQs. Thus, 67 were left ultimately for accurate reading, and 36 were included in this review.

3. Results

This section presents the articles that made it to the final stage of the literature review and briefly summarizes the main findings, related to educational coaching and the RQs/MQs of this work, of each one of them. The selected articles are outlined in

Table 3. List of articles finally included in the review.

Reference	Title	Addressed RQs
Aboalshamat et al., 2015  [46]	The impact of a self-development coaching programme on medical and dental students’ psychological health and academic performance: a randomised controlled trial	RQ1, RQ3
Acevedo, 2020 [47]	Explanatory factors for dropout from higher education in unfavourable socio-academic contexts	RQ2
Acosta et al., 2017 [48]	Model for determining pedagogical factors affecting the retention rates of first-year engineering students	RQ2
Alzen et al., 2021 [20]	Academic coaching and its relationship to student performance, retention, and credit completion	RQ1, RQ2
Andújar-Montoya et al., 2017 [49]	Skills and abilities aligned with the current market context	RQ2
Bordogna and Lundgren-Resenterra, 2023 [50]	Integrating and normalising coaching as a routine practice in doctoral supervision	RQ3
Byl et al., 2016 [51]	Peer-assisted learning as first-year student engagement and retention intervention: The impact on organizational commitment and academic performance	RQ1,RQ3
Capstick et al., 2019 [26]	Exploring the effectiveness of academic coaching for academically at-risk college students	RQ1, RQ2, RQ3
De la Cruz-Campos et al., 2023 [52]	Causes of academic dropout in higher education in Andalusia and proposals for its prevention at university: A systematic review	RQ2
Fonseca et al., 2017 [53]	Data analysis of coaching and advising in undergraduate students	RQ2
Grau-Valldosera and Minguillón, 2014 [28]	Rethinking dropout in online higher education: The case of the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya	RQ2
Heredia et al., 2020 [54]	Effectiveness of coaching to strengthen transformational leadership in nursing interns of a Private University of Lambayeque, 2019	RQ2
Hui and Sue-Chan, 2023 [55]	The mediating role of self-regulatory emotions in the relationship between peer coaching and student learning in higher education	RQ3
Hunaiti, 2021 [56]	Coaching for Raising Awareness Towards Research Project Planning and Management Using Grow Group Awareness Model	RQ1
Kayal et al., 2017 [57]	Improvement of academic performance and individual growth in students in university education on the basis of knowledge and development of strengths and the attainment of their own objectives	RQ1,RQ3
Lacatus et al., 2018 [58]	Causes And Effects Of University Dropout: Case Study	RQ2
Legendre, 2015 [59]	Diagnostic techniques, educational coaching, and group dynamics for improving teaching on college students	RQ1, RQ3
Lorenzo et al., 2023 [60]	Dropout at university. Variables involved on it	RQ2
Magpantay-Monroe, 2016 [61]	Strategies, principles and challenges of coaching (nursing) students	RQ1, RQ3
Marius et al., 2014 [62]	ETH Focus Projects–Successful approaches for Project-Based Education in Engineering Design	RQ1
McHugh et al., 2021 [63]	A Random Controlled Trial to Examine the Efficacy of Blank Slate: A Novel Spaced Retrieval Tool with Real-Time Learning Analytics	RQ1
Moore et al., 2016 [64]	Academic performance and perception of learning following a peer coaching teaching and assessment strategy	RQ1, RQ3
Pertegal-Felices and Manresa-Inigo, 2008 [65]	The virtual debate as a complementary evaluation and learning method for large groups: an experience with first year computer studies students	RQ2
Pertegal-Felices and Jimeno-Morenilla, 2011 [66]	Use of discussion boards as a student-centered methodology for large groups in higher education	RQ2
Reynolds, 2020 [67]	Academic coaching for learners in medical education: twelve tips for the learning specialist	RQ1
Rogers et al., 2023 [68]	NITEO: an innovative mental health and education program designed to reengage students with mental health conditions in college	RQ2
Rosa et al., 2015 [69]	Coaching as a work tool for emotional competence in the training of social education and social work students at the Ramón Llull University, Spain	RQ3
Roso-Bas et al., 2016 [70]	Emotional variables, dropout and academic performance in Spanish nursing students	RQ2
Saavedraa-Cuña and Quezada-Espinoza, 2022 [71]	Academic performance and factors that influence the desertion of engineering students: a study with a gender approach	RQ2
Santos-Villalba et al., 2023  [72]	Incident factors in Andalusian university dropout: A qualitative approach from the perspective of higher education students	RQ2
Shacham and Ben-Yehuda, 2018 [73]	Coaching program for academic success: Promoting equal opportunities for engineering students	RQ1, RQ3
Song et al., 2022 [74]	Business students’ perspectives on case method coaching for problem-based learning: impacts on student engagement and learning performance in higher education	RQ3
Tofade, 2010 [75]	Coaching younger practitioners and students using components of the co-active coaching model	RQ1
Wolff et al., 2020 [76]	Coaching in undergraduate medical education: a national survey	RQ1
Xu et al., 2021 [77]	Effects of the flipped classroom model on student performance and interaction with a peer-coach strategy	RQ1, RQ3
Zhao et al., 2022 [78]	A new type of remedial course for improving university students’ learning satisfaction and achievement	RQ2, RQ3

.

A description of each one of the articles sorted chronologically is provided in what follows:

• Pertegal-Felices and Manresa-Inigo, 2008 [65] evaluated the causes of dropout in the first year of computer engineering. They established that one of the causes is the high number of students in the subject of basic computer studies. They proposed the use of virtual tools to generate debates that allow interactions among students outside of the classroom. As a result of using these tools, the percentage of students who attend and pass exams increased significantly.
• Tofade, 2010 [75] described several components of co-active coaching and examined the characteristics of the ideal candidate and the value of coaching.
• Pertegal-Felices and Jimeno-Morenilla, 2011 [66] evaluated the impact of the computer engineering subject on student dropout and proposed the use of discussion forums in large groups as a complement to learning and subject assessment. According to this work, the use of discussion forums increases academic engagement because more students decide not to drop the subject. To demonstrate this, an experimental group (participating in the forums) and a control group (not participating in the forums) were created.
• Grau-Valldosera and Minguillón, 2014 [28] examined various definitions of academic dropout and established that these definitions are highly sensitive to the student’s context. After analyzing numerous articles, they presented a purely empirical definition. This definition is based on the probability that students will not continue a specific academic program after several consecutive “on-hold” semesters. This definition is highly adaptable to institutions offering distance education without permanence requirements.
• Marius et al., 2014 [62] used project-based learning together with coaching sessions on values to train students in responsibility and self-confidence when materializing a project. These sessions were held weekly and used questions that allowed for reflection.
• Aboalshamat et al., 2015 [46] analyzed the impact of coaching on students’ psychological self-development and its effect on academic performance. Aboalshamat used a control group and an experimental group in a two-day group workshop, with the experimental group receiving a different program from the control group. Psychological health was measured using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Academic performance was measured based on academic grades. The results indicated only short-term improvements in depression and anxiety compared to an active control, with no effect on academic performance.
• Legendre, 2015 [59] recommended using educational cognitive coaching, dialogic coaching, and group dynamics tailored to the learning process to optimize student integration and performance. The study concluded that group dynamics are crucial for understanding group situations, while coaching techniques enable teachers to enhance their teaching strategies.
• Rosa et al., 2015 [69] conducted a training experience where coaching was used as a tool to reinforce students’ emotional competence. The results of the experience show that students trained with the methodology used will be able to take on challenges and solve them while creating new ones.
• Byl et al., 2016 [51] examined student engagement in an online academic program, utilizing various approaches including peer tutoring and coaching, orientation activities, and social network community-building to assess impacts on younger and older first-year students. Their results indicate that young female students adapt better to these new approaches, showing increased academic performance.
• Magpantay-Monroe, 2016 [61] suggested an individualized summer coaching program for nursing graduates preparing for the NCLEX exam. Despite the success of the graduates who received coaching, the author highlighted the challenge of scaling this service to accommodate more students.
• Moore et al., 2016 [64] argued that a study conducted at a UK higher education institute with first-year physiotherapy students showed that peer coaching improved academic performance by 6 percent. This improvement increased by an additional 5 percent when integrated assessment was introduced.
• Roso-Bas et al., 2016 [70] used cross-correlation to study how emotional perception (intelligence, optimism/pessimism, and depressive rumination) influences dropout rates. The results revealed that students with a more pessimistic disposition had a greater tendency to drop out of studies.
• Acosta et al., 2017 [48] hypothesized that the responsibility of the teacher significantly influences student success or failure. To test this, Acosta et al., designed a model based on questionnaires for both students and teachers, aiming to identify classroom dynamics and thereby reduce dropout rates.
• Andújar-Montoya et al. 2017 [49] used coaching as a motivational tool for architecture students working on their final degree project. The study found that many students displayed individualism, demotivation, insecurity, and fear while developing their final project. The results indicate that coaching sessions helped integrate the being/doing of each participant (both students and teachers) and improved attitudes towards the final degree project.
• Fonseca et al., 2017 [53] studied the impact of coaching sessions on first-year engineering students. The sessions were designed to prevent frustration and insecurity while minimizing academic dropout. Data from a control and experimental group show that students who participated in coaching sessions failed fewer subjects than those who did not participate.
• Kayal et al., 2017 [57] employed individual coaching to develop strengths and competencies in leadership and entrepreneurship. They used various tools, such as Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) [79] to identify and strengthen students’ predominant qualities. Additionally, the Trait Meta-Mood Scale test assessed improvements in the targeted areas. Although students reported positive effects on their strengths, quantitative evidence was lacking due to the inability to access students’ grades directly.
• Lacatus et al., 2018 [58] conducted an empirical survey on 186 students to analyze the causes of dropout in the first year at the Bucharest University of Economic Studies. The survey results identified various dropout causes based on social and personal factors, such as the student’s upbringing environment, current academic performance, membership in a vulnerable group, belonging to a low-income family, lack of social skills, or low levels of interpersonal and emotional intelligence.
• Shacham and Ben-Yehuda, 2018 [73] examined the effectiveness of the PAC (personal academic coaching) program at an Israeli university. The program aimed to increase accessibility and equal opportunities in higher education, particularly in engineering, and to address dropout rates. Individual coaching sessions were conducted outside of any specific course and used a six-stage model. The study concluded that the PAC program improves students’ academic performance, transitioning them from an unsatisfactory academic status to a stable one, thus preventing dropout.
• Capstick et al., 2019 [26] studied the effectiveness of academic coaching for at-risk students in the United States. The study included students with low academic performance, although it was open to all who wished to benefit from the academic coaching program. The results indicate that students participating in academic coaching sessions significantly improved their GPA (grade point average) and retention rates.
• Reynolds, 2020 [67] noted that coaching to improve academic performance is underexplored compared to coaching for enhancing technical skills. He presented 12 tips for developing academic coaching skills and suggested that, while individual coaching is indispensable, measures such as preventive academic coaching (PAC), including presentations, seminars, and workshops, can maximize impact.
• Acevedo, 2020 [47] analyzed the causes of dropout in three higher education centers in Uruguay with unfavorable socio-academic contexts. For this, they opted for a quantitative methodology based on surveys, interviews, and focus groups. Acevedo hypothesized that the causes of dropout in disadvantaged contexts are different from those in favored contexts. The results obtained at the end of this research suggest that dropout in disadvantaged socioeconomic contexts is due to academic preparation (cognitive competencies and previous knowledge), skills and abilities, as well as intrinsic motivation, expectations, interests, aspirations, and emotions.
• Heredia et al., 2020 [54] conducted two tests before and after coaching sessions to measure the level of transformational leadership of 25 students from Lambayeque (Peru). The result revealed improvements in the leadership of the students.
• Wolff et al., 2020 [76] analyzed the use of educational coaching in 32 medical schools in the United States and demonstrated that coaching is being used to improve performance, professionalism, and academic achievement. The study shows that most of the analyzed faculties have implemented or are developing coaching programs to enhance these areas.
• Alzen et al., 2021 [20] utilized a quasi-experimental design to evaluate the impact of academic coaching on higher education students, examining how the effects vary based on the amount of coaching received. Students received individualized coaching sessions, each following a six-phase flow. They concluded that coaching directly affects students’ average grades, credits earned, and retention rates.
• Hunaiti, 2021 [56] advocated for the use of group coaching among research students to enhance group awareness, which, in turn, increases planning and management consciousness, ultimately boosting academic performance.
• McHugh et al., 2021 [63] examined the efficiency of the Blank Slate tool, a tool that promotes learning and prevents forgetting while analyzing data in the background. They concluded that this tool can be useful for a coach during the coaching process as it provides the real-time performance data of the student.
• Xu et al., 2021 [77] adopted a peer coaching approach outside the classroom based on the flipped classroom methodology and guided by specialized tutors. The study involved an experimental group of 44 students and a control group of 43 students, focusing on the various interactions students have outside the classroom. Their results indicate that this new approach could improve students’ learning achievements, but further studies are required due to the short duration of the experiment and the inability to account for all interactions.
• Saavedraa-Cuña and Quezada-Espinoza, 2022 [71] focused on the participation of women in engineering careers in Chile and, through a qualitative study, performed a descriptive analysis based on the characterization of students. They presented an analysis that identifies the main causes that can affect the academic development of women. One of their main results is related to the confidence that men show in relation to women and how this directly influences academic performance, especially when considering women with children under their care.
• Song et al., 2022 [74] examined the experiences gained by business students in Malaysia when coaching was applied in the case method and problem-based learning. The authors argued that coaching is a method that can spark students’ interest in learning, improve their engagement with peers and educators, and increase academic performance. They finally suggested that coaching through the case method develops analytical and interpersonal skills and increases student participation.
• Zhao et al., 2022 [78] presented a new type of reinforcement course to minimize dropout among first-year engineering students. The conclusions were that students who attended this course improved their academic performance more than students who did not attend it.
• Bordogna and Lundgren-Resenterra, 2023 [50] analyzed the mental health and well-being of PhD students due to the stress and isolation they are subjected to, arguing that it is necessary to reevaluate the supervision process. Bordogna and Lundgren-Resenterra explored how coaching tools could become a regular feature for their supervision.
• De la Cruz-Campos et al., 2023 [52] conducted a systematic review on dropout rates in Spain and noted that there is a lack of studies on university dropout in the last 12 years, as only 25 percent of Spanish universities have conducted studies on the matter. The few studies conducted in this period attribute dropout to low academic performance, lack of social support in the new academic environment, low socioeconomic status, pessimism, and lack of motivation. Additionally, to a lesser extent, they attribute it to poor relationships with teachers, lack of vocation, and job incompatibility.
• Hui and Sue-Chan, 2023 [55] examined the relationship between peer coaching and academic performance in a higher education setting. Using field data collected from 297 students. They highlighted a significant association between academic coaching and four self-regulating emotions: joy, dejection, calmness, and agitation. The study concluded that coaching indirectly influences students’ learning performance through the mediating effects of dejection and agitation.
• Lorenzo et al., 2023 [60] used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to analyze the satisfaction of university students in order to determine the causes of dropout. They concluded that there are five determining factors for dropout: student adaptation, personality, socioeconomic level, teacher–student relationship, and the quality of university education. Additionally, they included 10 studies related to dropout that support their conclusion.
• Rogers et al., 2023 [68] analyzed student dropout rates among those with mental health issues. Through qualitative interviews with university coaches, they concluded that the role of the university coach is crucial for the reintegration of students with mental health conditions.
• Santos-Villalba et al., 2023 [72] analyzed the causes of university dropout based on specific questions posed to a focus group composed of students from social education, early childhood education, primary education, and pedagogy degrees. The obtained results highlight that the main causes of dropout are the identification of studies that did not meet the initial expectations of the student, the use of traditional methodologies, simultaneous work activity, and economic situation.

4. Discussion

This section provides a general overview of the insights collected during the review process and answers the proposed research and mapping questions stated in Section 2.

4.1. General Overview

In this work, a review of the existing literature on educational coaching with university students has been conducted. Research and mapping questions were formulated to facilitate the creation of queries necessary for searching the Web of Science and Scopus databases. From the initial 12,601 results, the abstracts of 406 articles were ’eye-balled’, selecting 67 articles for cross-reading. Finally, 36 relevant articles (see Table 3) were identified that address the main methodologies of educational coaching applied to university students, their effects on academic performance, the causes of dropout, and the various coaching methodologies that help reduce it.

The analysis identified several dimensions related to educational coaching for university students: (1) individual versus group, (2) academic performance, (3) causes of academic dropout, (4) field of application, and (5) coaching tools. The obtained results are summarized in

Table 4. Matching of the five analyzed dimensions with the identified references in the literature. (1) Organization Form: Individual Coaching (IC) or Group Coaching (GC), (2) Coaching tools, (3) Assesses the effects of coaching in terms of academic performance: Yes (Y), No (N), (4) Assesses the effects of coaching in terms of academic dropout Yes (Y), No (N), and (5) Field of application.

Reference	IC	GC	Coaching Tools	Assesses Performance	Assesses Dropout	Application Field
Aboalshamat et al., 2015 [46]	N	Y	Powerful Questions	Y	N	Medical education
Acevedo, 2020 [47]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening	N	Y	Teacher training
Acosta et al., 2017 [48]	Y	N	Active Listening	N	Y	Engineering
Alzen et al., 2021 [20]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening	Y	Y	Arts & Sciences
Andújar-Montoya et al., 2017 [49]	Y	Y	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, Creative Visualization, SWOT Analysis	N	N	Architecture
Bordogna and Lundgren-Resenterra, 2023 [50]	Y	N	Questions, Active Listening	N	N	PhD Students
Byl et al., 2016 [51]	Y	Y	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, Creative Visualization, SWOT Analysis	Y	N	Psychology & Education Sciences
Capstick et al., 2019 [26]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, SWOT Analysis	Y	Y	Undergraduate students
De la Cruz-Campos et al., 2023 [52]	N	N		N	Y	Undergraduate students
Fonseca et al., 2017 [53]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, Creative Visualization, SWOT Analysis, The Wheel of Life	N	Y	Engineering
Grau-Valldosera and Minguillón, 2014 [28]	N	N		N	Y	Distance education
Heredia et al., 2020 [54]	Y	N	Active Listening	N	N	Nursing
Hui and Sue-Chan, 2023 [55]	Y	Y	Questions, Active Listening, Creative	Y	N	Undergraduate students
Hunaiti, 2021 [56]	N	Y	Questions, Active	Y	N	PhD Students
Kayal et al., 2017 [57]	Y	N	SWOT Analysis, Questions, Active	Y	N	Education Sciences
Lacatus et al., 2018 [58]	N	N		N	Y	Economy
Legendre, 2015 [59]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening	Y	N	Pedagogy
Lorenzo et al., 2023 [60]	N	N		N	Y	Undergraduate students
Magpantay-Monroe, 2016 [61]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening	Y	N	Nursing
Marius et al., 2014 [62]	N	Y	Powerful Questions	Y	N	Engineering and Industrial design
McHugh et al., 2021 [63]	Y	N	Active Listening	Y	N	Nursing
Moore et al., 2016 [64]	Y	N		Y	N	Psychology
Pertegal-Felices and Manresa-Inigo, 2008 [65]	N	N		Y	Y	Engineering
Pertegal-Felices and Jimeno-Morenilla, 2011 [66]	N	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening	Y	Y	Engineering
Reynolds, 2020 [67]	Y	Y	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, The Wheel of Life	Y	N	Medical education
Rogers et al., 2023 [68]	Y	N		N	Y	Undergraduate students
Rosa et al., 2015 [69]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, Creative Visualization	N	N	Social works
Roso-Bas et al., 2016 [70]	N	N		N	Y	Nursing
Saavedraa-Cuña and Quezada-Espinoza, 2022 [71]	N	N		N	Y	Engineering
Santos-Villalba et al., 2023 [72]	N	N		N	Y	Education Sciences
Shacham and Ben-Yehuda, 2018 [73]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, SWOT Analysis	Y	N	Engineering
Song et al., 2022 [74]	N	Y	Powerful Questions, Active Listening,	N	N	Business
Tofade, 2010 [75]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, SWOT Analysis	N	N	Pharmacy
Wolff et al., 2020 [76]	Y	N	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, SWOT Analysis	Y	N	Medical education
Xu et al., 2021 [77]	Y	Y	Powerful Questions, Active Listening, SWOT Analysis	Y	N	Video production
Zhao et al., 2022 [78]	N	N		N	Y	Engineering

.

In the first dimension (individual versus group), we have seen that the vast majority of studies focus on individualized coaching. However, research that combines group and individual coaching sessions is emerging. Some examples of this non-individual (i.e., group) approach have been reported by Pertegal-Felices and Jimeno-Morenilla, 2011 [66], who suggested that the use of discussion forums reduces course dropouts and improves academic performance, which somehow shares the same goals as educational coaching. This work might be the inspiration of Xu et al., 2021 [77] when they applied (although individually) peer coaching outside the classroom. Marius et al., 2014 [62] employed project-based learning alongside coaching sessions to foster responsibility and confidence in students. Finally, Reynolds, 2020 [67] suggested that group coaching sessions have the potential to enhance individual coaching sessions.

In the second dimension (i.e., academic performance), several articles reporting that individual academic coaching improves academic performance under certain specific conditions were found [20,26,46,51,53,55,56,64,65,69,73]. However, there is insufficient evidence in the literature to support that group coaching improves student outcomes.

In the third dimension (i.e, causes of academic dropout), articles identifying the main causes of dropout among university students were analyzed. The causes vary according to the field of study. Articles like those by De la Cruz-Campos et al., 2023 [52] and Lorenzo et al., 2023 [60] attribute dropout to low academic performance, socioeconomic level, student–teacher relationships, and emotional state. It is suggested that educational coaching could be an effective strategy to address these causes. However, other articles, such as that by Santos-Villalba et al., 2023 [72], indicate that some causes, such as unmet academic expectations, teaching methodologies not aligned with the student, and simultaneous work activities, are less likely to be mitigated through educational coaching.

In the fourth dimension (i.e., field of application), it was observed that educational coaching is applied in different fields of knowledge. Numerous studies exist on the application of coaching in medicine [46,54,61,64], distance education [28], architecture [49], engineering [53,62,65,66,71,73,78], economny [58], and social sciences [57,72,74].

In the fifth dimension (i.e., coaching tools), the resources for implementing educational coaching are generally not detailed in the articles, as coaches apply them as they identify the needs of the coachee. Some of the coaching tools sporadically mentioned in the reviewed articles are as follows:

• The Wheel of Life [2]: A graphical tool that allows the coachee to evaluate different important aspects of their life. Aspects such as health, interpersonal relationships, personal growth, finances, spirituality, and leisure are reflected in the wheel, and the coachee assesses their level of satisfaction with each aspect. This tool is explicitly mentioned by [35].
• Creative Visualization [80]: The coachee is invited to visualize the desired future within a specific time frame. The intention of this technique is to define clear goals that allow achieving that future. Another version of this tool is proposed by Ballesteros and Valls [81], which involves using a quadrant to note what one wants to achieve, what needs to be incorporated, what should be let go, and how to find the necessary energy to do so.
• Powerful Questions [82]: This is one of the essential tools in coaching. The coach uses open-ended and personalized questions that allow the coachee to reflect, with the intention of challenging limiting beliefs and advancing in their process.
• Active Listening [83]: A fundamental skill in coaching necessary to formulate the most appropriate powerful questions for the coachee and better identify their needs.
• SWOT Analysis [2]: Allows the analysis and evaluation of an individual’s current situation, representing their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to their goals.
• 360-Degree Feedback [84]: In this technique, information is gathered from various sources close to the coachee (friends, superiors, and family members), providing a broader perspective. Instead of receiving feedback from the coach, in this technique, the coachee receives comments from those close to them.

4.2. Answering the Research and Mapping Questions

All 36 articles were analyzed to identify the contributions that address the formulated research questions and mapping questions (see Section 2.2).

Table 5. Number of articles addressing each one of the topics posed by the RQs and MQs.

Category	Articles	Mapping Question
Dimensions of Academic Performance	14	MQ1.1
Coaching Approaches to Improve Performance	14	MQ1.2
Causes of Academic Dropout	16	MQ2.1
Coaching Approaches to Reduce Dropout	5	MQ2.2
Use of Coaching Tools in Universities	14	MQ3.1
Group Coaching in Universities	1	MQ3.2

shows the number of articles that address each one of the topic categories related to the proposed RQs and MQs. It can be seen that there are topics that are largely covered such as the use of coaching tools in universities, while some other topics seem to have little presence in the literature (e.g., group coaching in universities). The answer to each one of the proposed MQs (see Section 2.2) obtained from the analysis of the records resulting from the literature review process is presented in what follows.

• MQ1.1. What dimensions of academic performance are considered when assessing the impact of educational coaching?

Although the articles highlight various benefits of educational coaching, when it comes to academic performance, the primary focus is on the student’s short-term evaluation (e.g., midterms and semesters), specifically their grades and the successful completion of the courses in which they are enrolled. Thus, we can conclude that academic performance is directly related to the academic results reflected in the student’s transcript.

• MQ1.2 What approaches are applied through educational coaching to increase academic performance?

Various educational coaching approaches have been proven effective in improving academic performance. Most of these approaches focus on individualized coaching sessions with students. The number of sessions varies considerably, typically ranging from 4 to 10 per student. These sessions target specific goals, personalized study strategies, and the development of cognitive and emotional skills. In addition to individualized sessions, some methodologies incorporate seminars or group coaching sessions to maximize impact. Peer coaching, both inside and outside the classroom, is also a notable strategy. It allows students to use coaching as a tool to develop emotional competencies, facilitating mutual support and collaborative learning.

• MQ2.1 What are the main causes of academic dropout found in the literature and can they be addressed by coaching?

The causes of academic dropout are multifaceted and vary according to the field of study and the student’s profile. However, most research agrees on several common causes: poor academic performance, socioeconomic status, and the student’s emotional state. These causes are interdependent and often influence each other. Additionally, some studies highlight additional factors, such as the lack of alignment between academic expectations and the reality of the study program, inadequate teaching methodologies, and the simultaneous pursuit of studies and work, which can significantly contribute to academic dropout.

• MQ2.2 What approaches are applied through educational coaching to reduce dropout rates?

The tools and methodologies of educational coaching that help reduce dropout rates are closely related to those that improve academic performance (see answer to MQ1.2). Among these, individualized coaching sessions stand out for their effectiveness. These methodologies not only address academic difficulties but also focus on emotional and motivational aspects, providing comprehensive support to the student. However, the scalability of individual coaching (i.e., addressing a large number of coachees) has been identified as a major barrier to apply it systematically [61].

• MQ3.1 What tools of educational coaching are used with university students?

According to the reviewed papers, there are no specific tools uniquely used for the educational coaching domain. In fact, authors reported that to enhance both academic performance and personal development, they use the regular tools of coaching such as the Wheel of Life, which allows students to evaluate their satisfaction with different aspects of their lives such as health, relationships, and personal growth; Creative Visualization, which helps students define clear objectives by visualizing their desired future; Powerful Questions, which encourage reflection and challenge limiting beliefs; Active Listening, which ensures the coach can identify the student’s needs effectively; SWOT Analysis, which helps analyze the student’s current situation by outlining their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats; 360-Degree Feedback, which gathers insights from multiple sources close to the student, providing a comprehensive view of their performance and areas for improvement.

• MQ3.2 To coach a large population of individuals, what is the impact of group coaching on university students?

Group coaching, although its implementation is less common (25% of the studies included in this review) compared to individual coaching, shows promising results when used as a complement to individual coaching. The reviewed studies indicate that group coaching reinforces the actions undertaken in individual tutoring sessions by providing a space for interaction and mutual support among students. This not only improves group cohesion and the sense of belonging but also enhances the impact of individual coaching sessions, facilitating deeper and more sustainable learning.

Therefore, it can be confirmed that educational coaching for university students can increase academic performance (RQ1), reduce academic dropout rates (RQ2), and is mostly applied in an individual approach (RQ3).

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this literature review reveals that educational coaching, in its various forms, has a significant positive impact on academic performance and student retention in university settings. The different coaching approaches stand out for their effectiveness in addressing both academic and emotional challenges faced by students. However, the implementation of coaching in educational scenarios poses two major concerns in terms of resources that limit the scalability of this method: coaching knowledge and available time. On the one hand, few teachers have the required knowledge (and often the necessary skills) to act as coaches. This limits the number of coaches in an educational facility and, inherently, the number of students that can be coached. On the other hand, it has been reported that one of the critical success factors of educational coaching is the time in which the coaching sessions take place. For instance, there is a huge effectiveness difference in coaching students right after they receive the grades of an exam or doing it a month later. Therefore, if a coach has a long line of students waiting to be coached, there will probably be a considerable group of them that will fall outside the optimal time window in which they need to be coached.

Although further research is needed to fully understand the impact of group coaching, it seems that it may have great potential to address these two concerns that are inherent to educational environments. It would be interesting to conduct more research specifically on group coaching, as it could potentially minimize the resources allocated to coaching sessions, which typically need to be applied at specific times to have the desired impact.