Exploring Preservice Teachers’ Perceived Emotions, Professional Accountability, and Action-Taking Dispositions Towards Language Assessment Scenarios

Abstract

This exploratory case study investigates the emotional responses, professional accountability, and action-taking dispositions of 150 Chilean prospective English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers towards language assessment scenarios. Despite the growing interest in assessment, little research has focused on the affective experiences of trainee teachers. Participants completed the Emotionally Loaded Situations Questionnaire, which assessed their reactions to situations where students fail language assessments. The study reveals that these situations elicited negative emotional responses, leading to a diminished sense of teacher identity due to perceived inefficiencies in teaching and assessment practices. The findings also highlight the teachers’ dispositions towards taking corrective actions, such as revisiting teaching and assessment strategies, reinforcing assessment content, and improving future practices. As to professional accountability, trainee teachers acknowledge that their teaching performance has a direct effect on their students’ assessment results. These outcomes emphasize the need for further research on the affective dimension in language assessment to better support the professional development of future teachers.

1. Introduction

In the field of teaching, various factors influence the learning process, with one of the key elements being the affective dimension. This dimension includes emotional responses, attitudes, and teacher dispositions, all of which play a crucial role in shaping teaching practices and student outcomes. Emotions have long been considered central in foreign language instructions, and according to Zhang and Tsang (2021), “teacher emotions can refer to the feelings of teachers constructed by both their psychological processes and the social context in which they exist” (p. 2). This implies that teacher emotions are not only internal experiences but are also influenced by external factors. In this regard, during teaching and assessment processes, teachers often experience complex decisions related to grading, which can trigger a mix of feelings (Teng, 2017; Edwards, 2021; Dumančić et al., 2022; Ji et al., 2022).

In recent years, research has increasingly focused on the role of positive emotions in language learning and teaching. According to Qu and Wang (2024) and Wang et al. (2024), while many studies have explored these topics, there is a lack of research specifically examining how EFL teachers perceive positive emotionality. These authors emphasize that positive emotions have a beneficial effect on teaching and learning, particularly in creating a positive learning climate, fostering professional success, and enhancing enthusiasm and commitment.

Research on the role of emotions in language assessment is scarce, as this field has primarily been explored through rational and cognitive lenses, often neglecting the emotional experiences of both pre-service and in-service teachers (Dewaele et al., 2019; MacIntyre et al., 2020; Mohammadkhah et al., 2022). Language assessment literacy frameworks have typically emphasized teachers’ theoretical and technical knowledge of assessment; however, Xu and Brown (2016) argue that focusing only on these competencies fails to capture the multifaceted nature of language assessment, where affective dimensions frequently emerge but are often overlooked. Therefore, both emotional and cognitive aspects of language assessment in EFL contexts should be considered intertwined elements that enhance our understanding of L2 educators’ language assessment literacy (Edwards, 2021; Richards, 2022; Mohammadkhah et al., 2022; Xu & Brown, 2016).

Despite these gaps, recent studies (Martínez Agudo, 2018; Tsang & Jiang, 2018; Alba-Juez & Mackenzie, 2019; Dumančić et al., 2022; Lu, 2022; Richards, 2022) have examined how emotions in L2 classrooms can either facilitate or hinder the assessment process. Ji et al. (2022) argue that emotions significantly shape L2 prospective educators’ perceptions of professional accountability, which can predict their subsequent disposition toward assessment-related actions. Méndez López (2011) emphasizes that effective assessment practices require not only a strong theoretical understanding of assessment but also an awareness of the affective dimensions involved, as both factors influence assessment outcomes. Given that foreign language assessment is conducted within socially constructed environments, the emotions of L2 stakeholders play a critical role in shaping the motivational behavior of trainee teachers throughout the learning cycle (Méndez López, 2011).

Wang et al. (2024) argue that the well-being of English teachers is a critical area of study due to its significant impact on their professional performance and the overall quality of education. Teachers’ well-being directly affects both teaching and learning, making it essential to explore this topic further. Furthermore, prospective teachers’ experiences in emotionally charged assessment scenarios offer valuable insights into their roles as both professionals and individuals (Fulcher, 2021; Mohammadkhah et al., 2022). These insights are crucial for teacher education, policymaking, and teacher preparation programs. Thus, this paper aims to explore pre-service teachers’ perceived emotions, professional accountability, and action-oriented dispositions in language assessment contexts.

This manuscript is presented in the context of the research grants Fondecyt 1220307 entitled Estudio sobre el diseño de instrumentos de evaluación del idioma inglés: procesos y carga cognitiva, respuesta afectiva y desempeños de candidatos a profesores, and FB0003, proyecto basal del Centro de Investigación Avanzada en Educación.

2. Literature Review

2.1. English Language Assessment

English language assessment has long been considered a key part of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ role. According to Purpura (2016, cited in Şişman & Büyükkarcı, 2019), assessment is a systematic procedure that gathers information by means of tests or other tools in order to draw conclusions about an individual’s language performance. Given its ongoing nature, it is often seen as a broad term because it includes not just a process based on evidence, but also other aspects like testing and evaluation (Islam & Bt Stapa, 2019). From this perspective, teachers must know what to assess; that is to say, the aspects of language being assessed, as well as how to assess, which might encompass language assessment principles, design, scoring, and grading. In other words, for the student, this implies that assessment is not just about tests or grades, but also includes various ways of measuring their learning and progress, such as feedback, observations, and other forms of evaluation.

Islam et al. (2021) and Villa Larenas and Brunfaut (2023) assert that teachers must demonstrate high-quality assessment competencies. These competencies encompass not only the creation and administration of assessments but also the scoring and interpretation of results. Accordingly, foreign language educators are expected to possess the “knowledge, skills, and abilities required to design, develop, maintain, or evaluate large-scale standardized and/or classroom-based tests” (Fulcher, 2012, p. 125). Given the various stages involved, assessment becomes a complex process for teachers, requiring them to balance multiple responsibilities and make informed decisions about students’ learning. As a consequence, Brown et al. (2018) affirm that “assessment and evaluation evoke a range of complex emotions, such as anxiety, concern, and pride, in teachers” (p. 205). These emotional responses further add to the complexity of the process, as teachers must navigate both the technical and emotional aspects of assessment while striving to support their students’ development.

English language assessment then plays a crucial role in EFL teaching, requiring teachers to develop language assessment literacy that encompasses both technical expertise and the ability to handle the emotional challenges of the process.

2.2. Emotions in Language Assessment

Emotions play a significant role in shaping teachers’ behavior in the EFL context, as they are often triggered by specific individuals, experiences, or teaching situations (Gross, 1998; Barcelos, 2015). In the opinion of various authors (Teng, 2017; Dumančić et al., 2022), emotions are a fundamental aspect of teaching, closely linked to pedagogical responsibilities, and often emerge during learning activities and assessments. As such, affective factors are deeply embedded in the role of language teachers.

One area where emotions are especially prominent is L2 assessment. The complexities of evaluating students’ language proficiency and the pressure to meet assessment standards in measurement-driven environments often lead to negative emotions among teachers (Díaz Larenas et al., 2023; Thirakunkovit, 2018; Harding & Kremmel, 2016; Edwards, 2021). In this respect, language assessment is emotionally charged, as it requires complex decision-making, which can trigger strong feelings.

Although various authors have sought to define emotions in the educational context, reaching a unified definition has proven challenging (Hascher, 2008; Naa, 2022; Her & De Costa, 2022; Nussbaum, 2001; Pishghadam et al., 2016; Richards, 2022; Ackerman, 2019). Nonetheless, there is broad agreement that emotions involve brief and spontaneous physical or psychological responses to specific events or situations. MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) argue that one of the main contributions of positive psychology is distinguishing between positive and negative emotions. Positive emotions, such as joy or interest, encourage broader thinking and openness to new ideas, while negative emotions, such as fear or anger, tend to focus on overcoming obstacles. According to Derakhshan et al. (2023) and Dumančić et al. (2022), assessment outcomes, in particular, can cause discouragement, frustration, and reluctance to engage in future assessments.

For the purposes of this paper, positive emotions are understood as “pleasant responses to experience”, encompassing feelings like happiness, pride, and satisfaction, while negative emotions are defined as reactions such as anxiety, fear, and frustration. In the context of L2 assessment, these emotions significantly influence the experiences of educators, especially when faced with the inherent complexities of measuring students’ language proficiency (Edwards, 2021; Ji et al., 2022; Thirakunkovit, 2018).

Successful language assessment outcomes can evoke positive emotions such as satisfaction and pride (Dörnyei, 2005; Guerrero Azócar, 2017; Nalipay et al., 2021; Mohammadkhah et al., 2022). However, numerous studies highlight that unfavorable results often lead to discouragement and frustration (Dörnyei, 2005; Derakhshan et al., 2023; Dumančić et al., 2022; Edwards, 2021). Edwards (2021) and Richards (2022) further note that these negative emotions intensify teachers’ sense of pedagogical responsibility and can impact their motivation to engage in both assessment practices and instructional improvements.

Research suggests that pre-service teachers frequently experience negative emotions during language assessment scenarios, particularly due to factors such as limited assessment literacy, students’ reluctance to participate, and discrepancies between expected and actual performance outcomes (Brown et al., 2018; Edwards, 2021; Kırmızı & Sarıçıban, 2020; Myyry et al., 2019; Richards, 2022). Additionally, the assessment of speaking and writing skills presents unique challenges. Productive skills require the evaluation of various factors, such as lexical and grammatical knowledge, fluency, and text organization, which complicates the process and can heighten teachers’ emotional responses (Adem & Berkessa, 2022; Al-Jarf, 2022; Jashari & Fojkar, 2019; Purwati et al., 2023). Conversely, listening and reading assessments, which focus on decoding and comprehension, tend to evoke fewer emotional challenges as they do not require spontaneous responses. Consequently, pre-service teachers generally maintain more positive emotions toward these types of assessments (Adem & Berkessa, 2022; Saragih et al., 2022; Purwati et al., 2023). However, some researchers argue that even receptive skills can pose cognitive challenges, requiring the use of both top-down and bottom-up strategies. These demands can lead to affective issues among teachers and learners when they are unprepared for the complexities of reading and listening assessments (Nuraeningsih, 2022; Solak & Altay, 2014; Jamal et al., 2020).

Given that unfavorable assessment outcomes can trigger negative emotions (Horwitz et al., 1986; Teimouri, 2018; Yu, 2022), it is crucial to further investigate these scenarios. Understanding the emotional responses of EFL trainee teachers can provide valuable insights into their perspectives on professional responsibility and their approach to classroom action.

2.3. Teacher Accountability in Language Assessment

Ghai (2023) defines teacher accountability as “the teacher’s responsibility for the students and their progress in terms of personal and professional development” (p. 785). The relationship between teacher accountability and student academic performance is influenced by factors such as assessment results, teacher preparation, student engagement, school resources, and parental involvement. Research suggests that systematic professional accountability can enhance language teachers’ decision-making in assessment practices (Kırmızı & Sarıçıban, 2020; Putro et al., 2022). In other words, when a teacher is regularly monitored and receives support through training or feedback, they are likely to improve his/her ability to design assessments, interpret results, and adjust teaching strategies based on student performance.

Several scholars argue that when teachers see positive results from their assessments, it encourages them to improve their teaching methods (Popkova, 2020; Widiastuti et al., 2020). This sense of responsibility, or teacher accountability, grows when teachers notice that their assessments lead to good outcomes, motivating them to keep improving. On the other hand, if the results are negative, teachers might hesitate to use the same assessment methods again. They feel accountable and take time to think about what went wrong so they can improve in the future (Camila-Villarreal & Méndez-Rivera, 2021; Liu, 2023). In this way, teacher accountability not only affects how well teachers assess their students but also shapes how they adjust their teaching decisions to help students perform better (Dargusch & Charteris, 2018; AlHarbi & Ahmad, 2020; Edwards, 2021; Ji et al., 2022; Nguyen, 2022; Syakira et al., 2023).

Teacher accountability also implies how teachers view their responsibilities during teaching (Zarei et al., 2019; Küçükbere & Balkar, 2021). In this context, teachers often link their sense of responsibility to how they feel about students’ assessment results (Şişman & Büyükkarcı, 2019; Browes & Altinyelken, 2022). In other words, many EFL teachers feel their role is closely related to how well students perform in language assessments. To illustrate, when students perform poorly, teachers may feel negative emotions, which can lower their confidence and increase their sense of responsibility to improve their teaching practice.

To sum up, teacher accountability is essential in shaping educators’ professional practices, especially when it comes to assessment.

2.4. Action-Taking Disposition in Teacher Language Assessment Practices

Taylor and Wasicsko (2000, cited in Johnston et al., 2018) define disposition as the personal qualities or characteristics individuals possess, such as attitudes, beliefs, values, and their ability to adapt to various situations. Building on this, Flowers (2006), Nelsen (2015), and Thornton (2006) explain that teacher dispositions encompass both cognitive and emotional traits that motivate educators to adjust their behavior based on their teaching practices, thereby guiding their actions in specific ways. These dispositions are often shaped by personal experiences and beliefs, which, in turn, influence how teachers approach teaching situations and make decisions (Alsup, 2014, as cited in Barahona, 2020).

Several authors argue that teachers’ identities play a key role in shaping their decisions and actions in the foreign language classroom, especially regarding assessment and teaching methods. Widiastuti et al. (2020) and Popkova (2020) suggest that teachers’ dispositions toward assessment are driven by a desire to achieve positive outcomes and maintain high standards. Teachers with positive emotions toward assessment are more likely to adjust their methods to reflect students’ language knowledge, leading to better learning results. As an illustration, if a teacher observes that students struggle with a particular concept, they may revise their assessment methods to offer more targeted feedback.

Popkova (2020) adds that teachers who have positive dispositions toward assessment decision-making are more likely to try different methods and adjust their practices to meet students’ needs. These teachers aim to ensure that their assessments accurately reflect students’ language skills and to expand their assessment tools to improve teaching effectiveness.

All in all, teachers’ dispositions, shaped by their beliefs, emotions, and identity, significantly influence their assessment practices and decision-making in the classroom. Teachers with positive dispositions toward assessment are more likely to create engaging and effective learning environments that support student growth and motivation. Understanding these factors is essential for improving teaching strategies and student outcomes.

3. Main Research Question

What perceived emotions, professional accountability, and action-taking dispositions do preservice teachers experience towards hypothetical language assessment scenarios with substantial student underperformance rates?

Research Sub-Questions

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Sub-research question 1: what perceived emotions would participants experience after finding out that 60% of their learners had failed the language assessment they had created?

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Sub-research question 2: how accountable would participants feel after finding out that 60% of their learners had failed the language assessment they had created?

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Sub-research question 3: what remedial actions would participants take after finding out that 60% of their learners had failed the language assessment they had created?

4. Methodology

4.1. Research Design

This investigation falls within the qualitative paradigm, aiming to explore participants’ perceptions of a phenomenon by means of written or oral data collection through thematic analysis (Green & Thorogood, 2014), which is considered an effective method for researching the viewpoints of various participants (Nowell et al., 2017). Similarly, the current research follows the principles of an exploratory case study methodology (Chopard & Przybylski, 2021; Hill, 2017; Jansen, 2023), which aims at understanding and gaining in-depth knowledge of participants’ perceived emotions when facing hypothetical language assessment scenarios, an area that has been scarcely researched within the Chilean EFL context.

4.2. Participants

Table 1. Demographic information of research participants.

Variable	Category	Frequency (n)	Percentage (%)
Gender	Female	105	70.00%
	Male	40	26.67%
	Non-binary	5	3.33%
Age Range	21–27 years	150	100.00%
Institution Type	Private	110	73.33%
	Public	40	26.67%

below shows the demographic information of the participants. It includes gender, age, and institution type.

Participants in this study were 150 preservice teachers enrolled in five-year English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher preparation programs in Northern, Central, and Southern Chile. Their ages ranged from 21 to 27 years old, with a gender distribution of 105 female, 40 male, and 5 non-binary participants. All participants were in their fourth or fifth year of study, receiving training in English language, pedagogy, and field experiences across various local schools. They were selected based on their advanced level of English proficiency and their completion of four one-semester teaching practicums. Additionally, 73.33% of the participants studied in private higher education institutions, while 26.67% studied in public institutions. The participants were chosen for their insider’s perspective on assessment literacy, as they are responsible for designing assessment procedures in schools, which often trigger emotional reactions. They were invited to participate through a questionnaire (see Appendix A), where they provided their consent to be part of the study. These criteria ensured that the participants had the necessary academic background and relevant experiences to contribute meaningful insights to the research. The specific criteria for participants’ selection were as follows:

• Program type;
• Age range;
• Year of study;
• Language proficiency.

4.3. Data Collection Tool

All participants completed the Emotionally Loaded Situations Questionnaire, adapted from Piasecka (2013), which was reviewed by experts to ensure its relevance to the Chilean context. The questionnaire consisted of eight hypothetical language assessment scenarios that participants are likely to encounter in their assessment practices. Each scenario was followed by two open-ended questions aimed at exploring how participants would feel in such situations and how they would respond. The participants were presented with scenarios in which approximately 60% of their students had failed their language assessments and were asked to describe their emotional reactions and proposed actions. They were instructed to write about their feelings in these situations and the steps they would take in response.

4.4. Data Analysis Technique

All the responses were gathered and underwent a Thematic Analysis Process that involved the following phases:

• Transcription: the data were first transcribed, converting audio notes into a text format;
• Coding: the data were divided into smaller segments, and each segment was labeled with a “code”;
• Identification of patterns: after coding, the researcher identified overarching themes and subthemes by grouping related codes. These themes represent key ideas or patterns found across the data collection (Braun & Clarke, 2012);
• Organization: the themes and subthemes were organized systematically to represent the dataset’s findings.

As Freeman (1998) explains, “naming, grouping, finding relationships, and displaying” are the four fundamental activities involved in data analysis (p. 102). According to Braun and Clarke (2006), thematic analysis requires core skills that facilitate a more effective approach to qualitative data, leading to valuable findings when applied properly. The data went through an ongoing process of constant comparison and contrast, supported by investigator triangulation, to ensure internal consistency (Haven & Van Grootel, 2019). Additionally, an inductive coding technique was used to identify emerging codes, themes, and subthemes.

4.5. Procedure

The study followed a systematic procedure: Initially, the instruments were designed and validated. Next, the sample was selected, and the instruments were applied. After data collection, the data were transcribed, and thematic analysis was conducted to examine the results.

5. Findings

This section will be approached by responding to each sub-research question.

5.1. Sub-Research Question 1

What perceived emotions would participants experience after finding out that 60% of their learners had failed the language assessment they had created?

Table 2. Perceived emotions.

Defined Theme	Subthemes	Data Examples
Perceived emotions	1. Discouragement	1. “[…] I would feel discouraged because my strategies might not have been enough for my students to acquire the necessary knowledge […]” (p. 40)
	2. Worry	2. “I would be exceptionally worried, since these are the most important skills in the language […].” (p. 55)
	3. Frustration	3. “Personally, I would feel frustrated with my teaching practices, since they are part of my personality and responsibility […]” (p. 18)
	4. Surprise	4. “I would be mainly surprised, since in order to having conducted the assessment, I would have had had to practice and explain the content with my students […]” (p. 93)
	5. Consideration of learners’ complex acquisition of productive skills, vocabulary, and grammar	5. “I would feel worried, but at the same time, I would understand the results since these skills are difficult to be learned […]” (p. 132)
	6. Guilt	6. “Since I’m in charge of the class and the assessment processes, I would feel guilty about the results […].” (p. 65)
	7. Annoyance	7. “If […] I never saw them participating and they were mostly uninterested in the lessons, I would feel annoyed.” (p. 24)

depicts participants’ perceived emotions towards their learners hypothetically failing a language skill or system assessment.

Table 2 shows that prospective teachers often exhibit a wide range of negative emotions, including discouragement, worry, frustration, surprise, annoyance, and guilt in such situations. However, they also demonstrate an awareness of the complexities involved in learning speaking, writing, vocabulary, and grammar. Additionally, participants recognize the challenges these English skills and systems present for their students’ language learning. This makes them anticipate the assessment outcomes. While pre-service teachers believe their students may struggle with the assessment of speaking and writing, their concern intensifies when students fail an assessment of reading and listening, as they perceive these skills to be easier to develop over time.

5.2. Sub-Research Question 2

How accountable would participants feel after finding out that 60% of their learners had failed the language assessment they had created?

Table 3. Perceived professional accountability.

Defined Theme	Subthemes	Data Examples
Perceived professional accountability	Inefficient teaching or assessment practices	“[…] I would not be reaching my goal, which is that the students learn […]. It would be my fault as a teacher.” (p. 17) “I would probably feel like my job as a teacher was not right since I did not work on the skills accurately […].” (p. 20) “Insecure of what was taught, of the time spent, of the way in which the assessment tool was created.” (p. 53) “I would feel like it was my issue for not having paid attention to my students’ needs. I would feel like I failed on the strategies used with my students.” (p. 117)

portrays pre-service teachers’ perceived professional accountability pertaining to their learners hypothetically failing a language skill or system assessment.

Table 3 illustrates that prospective teachers recognize that their teaching effectiveness significantly influences their students’ assessment outcomes. Consequently, they perceive their pedagogical practices as the key factor determining how well their hypothetical students perform on assessments, including the likelihood of failure. Teacher candidates believe that high failure rates among their hypothetical learners are primarily due to deficiencies in their own teaching and assessment approaches. Specifically, participants emphasize that the use of poorly designed assessment tools can lead to inaccurate evaluation results. These tools often fail to effectively measure proficiency in a second language (L2), ultimately undermining the perceived performance of students during assessments. This emphasizes the participants’ strong sense of professional accountability, which is identified through their belief that the success or failure of their learners rests directly on their own teaching and assessment practices. By recognizing that their instructional decisions directly impact student outcomes, participants demonstrate an awareness of their responsibility to ensure that assessment methods are both effective and aligned with student needs.

5.3. Sub-Research Question 3

What remedial actions would participants take after finding out that 60% of their learners had failed the language assessment they had created?

Table 4. Disposition to remedial actions after assessment.

Defined Theme	Subthemes	Data Examples
Disposition to remedial action after assessment	1. Exploring teaching and learning flaws	“The first thing I would feel would be concern for my explanation or my teaching practices, because they could be inappropriate for my students […].” (p. 97)
	2. Enriching future teaching and assessment practices	“I would think about the things I can do better, or how I could explain the content in a better way. Maybe, improving lesson planning, or using texts more relatable for the students and appealing audiovisual input.” (p. 67)
	3. Reinforcing assessment content	“I would think about what to do for the next assessments to be better, how to review the content, the objectives, such as the radio or the printer, since maybe these tools could have also failed.” (p. 1)
	4. Conducting new assessment	“I would think of a way to review the content, practice, and apply a new evaluation of the same skills in the next class with the purpose of giving the opportunity to the students to obtain a new and better grade.” (p. 106)
	5. Exploring assessment construction flaws	“I would review the assessment tool; perhaps I should focus on only two or three criteria for evaluation.”(p. 22)

displays participants’ dispositions towards remedial actions as a result of their learners hypothetically failing an assessment of a language skill or system.

Trainee teachers express a strong willingness to address their learners’ high rates of failure by identifying and correcting flaws in their teaching, learning, and assessment practices. They emphasize the importance of reviewing lesson planning, course objectives, content delivery, and activity sequencing to pinpoint potential shortcomings that may hinder student performance. Additionally, they highlight the need to align instruction with students’ diverse learning preferences, individual differences, and classroom dynamics, as these factors can provide valuable insights into learners’ underperformance on assessments.

Participants advocate for the development of high-quality assessment tools that adhere to assessment principles and accurately measure students’ language skills and knowledge. They also support re-administering assessments with improved instruments to better gauge their students’ capabilities. For long-term remedial actions, trainee teachers plan to enhance their lesson planning to foster students’ language skills and learning processes. They recognize the value of utilizing varied assessment types tailored to learners’ needs, as well as incorporating formative assessments to increase students’ self-awareness of their linguistic performance. This approach will enable more informed adjustments throughout the learning cycle and contribute to overall language learning success.

6. Discussion

The following section will discuss and analyze the findings related to preservice teachers’ perceived emotions, professional accountability, and action-taking dispositions in relation to language assessment scenarios. Each result will be examined in relation to the research questions and existing literature, highlighting the implications and potential contributions.

The findings of the study suggest that, in this hypothetical scenario, participants experienced a range of emotions upon discovering that 60% of their students had failed the language assessment they designed, including discouragement, frustration, and guilt. These reactions reflect a strong sense of responsibility, indicating that trainee teachers feel personally accountable for their students’ successes and failures, and demonstrate a deep commitment to their students’ progress. As Edwards (2021) notes, language assessment can be emotionally charged, as it involves complex pedagogical decisions that often provoke strong reactions, especially among L2 teacher candidates. This highlights that the assessment process is inherently challenging, and even more so for students training to teach English, particularly in contexts where English is not immediately relevant. This adds an additional layer of complexity. In such a context, students’ underperformance may intensify pre-service teachers’ concerns about their own teaching and assessment abilities.

By the same token, trainee teachers also expressed concern about their students’ development in areas such as productive skills, vocabulary, and grammar, which they viewed as more difficult, leading to negative expectations. In contrast, receptive skills were seen as easier to develop, leading to more positive expectations. This aligns with previous research on EFL teachers’ emotions regarding speaking, writing, grammar, and vocabulary instruction, which are often viewed as more complex and emotionally challenging (Adem & Berkessa, 2022; Afzal, 2019; Alostath, 2019; Correia, 2016; Hidayati, 2018; Jashari & Fojkar, 2019; Purwati et al., 2023; Önalan, 2018). This reveals the need for support in assessing challenging skills by providing effective teaching strategies and addressing pre-service teachers’ emotional well-being. Such support can help foster a more positive and supportive learning environment. Furthermore, upon discovering their students’ failures, participants expressed surprise and frustration, as they believed they had taught the content effectively before administering the assessments. They attributed the low scores to factors outside their teaching methods or assessment procedures. Dumančić et al. (2022) suggest that emotions such as uncertainty and surprise can emerge when there is a disconnect between students’ engagement during instruction and their assessment outcomes. This emphasizes the importance of properly preparing teacher candidates both in assessment practices and emotional management, to foster more effective teaching and a better understanding of assessment outcomes.

Regarding professional accountability, trainee teachers expressed a sense of failure toward their students, reflecting the strong connection between their sense of responsibility and students’ assessment results (Şişman & Büyükkarcı, 2019; Browes & Altinyelken, 2022). They attributed these challenges to their limited teaching experience, which can intensify negative reactions related to assessment. The results highlight the complexities of teaching and assessment, especially in diverse classroom settings. When teachers’ expectations do not align with students’ performance, they may experience disappointment, frustration, and guilt, leading them to question their teaching methods and assessment practices. These reactions are likely more pronounced in teachers with little or no experience.

The participants’ feelings of guilt, insecurity, and frustration upon discovering the high failure rates reflected their belief that their role was a key factor in students’ underperformance. They took personal responsibility for the failure rates, attributing the poor performance to their own teaching or assessment methods. This emphasizes that effective teaching involves more than delivering content. According to Richards (2022) and Derakhshan et al. (2023), teachers’ professional identities are shaped by their teaching, assessment practices, and decision-making in foreign language instruction. Thus, teaching should be viewed holistically, as teachers’ approaches to teaching, assessing, and decision-making are interconnected.

Regarding teachers’ action-taking disposition, participants expressed a willingness to take immediate action in response to students’ failure. This includes analyzing flaws in teaching, trying different methods, adjusting assessment practices, reinforcing content, and administering new assessments, among other measures. They also discussed long-term strategies for improving future assessments, with a focus on enhancing teaching and assessment methods. These findings suggest that participants demonstrate both self-criticism and proactivity when reflecting on what went well and what could have been improved, as well as on the changes they would implement moving forward. This also highlights their flexibility, which is a crucial aspect of teaching. Interestingly, Edwards (2021) and Richards (2022) note that negative emotions in assessment situations can strengthen L2 educators’ sense of pedagogical responsibility, motivating them to take action to improve their teaching. In this context, it can be inferred that there is a strong relationship between emotions and trainee teachers’ disposition to take proactive steps based on their experience.

Participants also showed a long-term commitment to improving their teaching and assessment methods by using effective strategies, organizing tasks well, and including real-life communication activities to help students master language skills. This commitment highlights the importance of teacher preparation and shows the participants’ positive attitude and dedication to improving their teaching. Kırmızı and Sarıçıban (2020), Cowie (2011), and Méndez López (2020) suggest that this kind of commitment can improve teaching and assessment practices, leading to better student performance and more positive attitudes toward learning languages.

Overall, emotions, professional accountability, and disposition are interconnected, with each influencing the others. The emotions that pre-service teachers experience, such as frustration and guilt, are closely tied to their sense of accountability for their students’ performance. These emotions, in turn, motivate teachers to take proactive actions, such as adapting their teaching methods and improving their assessment practices. This highlights how emotional reactions can drive a teacher’s sense of responsibility, which then leads to a disposition focused on growth and improvement. Therefore, understanding and addressing these interconnected elements in teacher preparation can enhance both teaching effectiveness and students’ learning outcomes.

7. Conclusions

The current research study aimed to explore preservice teachers’ self-perceived emotions, professional accountability, and attitudes towards remedial actions in hypothetical L2 assessment scenarios. The findings revealed that unfavorable assessment situations triggered a range of negative emotional responses from the trainee teachers, which in turn impacted their sense of professional accountability and teacher identity. In response to these challenges, participants expressed several dispositions towards remedial actions: (i) analyzing flaws in teaching, learning, and assessment practices; (ii) reinforcing assessment content; (iii) conducting new assessments; and (iv) enhancing future teaching and assessment methods.

A notable limitation of this study is the limited research addressing the role of affectivity in language assessment, which prevents a comprehensive understanding of how emotions influence preservice teachers’ instructional and assessment practices. Furthermore, the sample consisted of 73.33% of participants enrolled in private higher education institutions, compared to 26.67% in public institutions. This disparity may have influenced the responses, as differences in the quality of teacher training between private and public universities could have affected participants’ perceptions and actions.

This study emphasizes the significance of emotional responses in language assessment, particularly in the context of future English teachers. It is essential for both teacher candidates and educational institutions to recognize the impact of these emotions. Future research should explore the strategies that language educators use to manage emotions triggered by assessment processes in diverse contexts. Such studies would offer valuable insights into how emotional responses can be better addressed to enhance both foreign language teaching and learning.