The Implementation of the Askisi-SD Neuropsychological Web-Based Screener: A Battery of Tasks for Screening Cognitive and Spelling Deficits of Children

Abstract

The Askisi-Spelling Deficits (SD) neuropsychological web-based screener was developed to assess cognitive and spelling abilities in children, with an emphasis on the early detection of spelling disorders. This tool incorporates six tasks that evaluate cognitive domains, such as visual and auditory working memory, response inhibition, and spelling processing, providing a comprehensive framework for assessment. A study conducted with 264 Greek children, including 132 children with spelling deficits and 132 typically developing controls, aimed to implement this screening tool. Results indicated that the screener was effective, as children with spelling deficits showed significantly lower performance and longer response times across all tasks. The tool’s internal consistency was supported by split-half correlations (r = 0.64) and Spearman–Brown coefficients (r = 0.78). Nonetheless, certain limitations were identified, including the absence of latency data for specific tasks (Go/No-Go and working memory), as well as the screener’s cultural specificity, which might limit its applicability to other linguistic and orthographic systems. Future iterations should prioritize the inclusion of timing mechanisms for more detailed assessments and consider adaptations for use in languages with varying orthographic complexities. Expanding the demographic reach and conducting longitudinal validation studies would further improve its utility and generalizability. The web-based nature of the screener enables scalable and standardized administration, making it a practical and efficient tool for the early identification of spelling difficulties in children.

1. Introduction

A Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) is classified in the DSM-5 (APA, 2013) as a neurodevelopmental condition marked by persistent challenges in acquiring and applying academic skills. These difficulties cannot be attributed to intellectual disabilities, sensory impairments, neurological conditions, psychosocial adversity, or inadequate educational opportunities. They significantly impact academic, occupational, or everyday functioning and persist, despite the presence of targeted intervention programs (APA, 2013). Affected academic areas include reading (e.g., slow or inaccurate reading), written expression (e.g., spelling and grammar difficulties), and mathematics (e.g., issues with number sense or problem solving).

The prevalence of spelling disorders varies based on factors such as language, orthographic transparency, and diagnostic criteria. While specific prevalence data on spelling disorders alone are scarce, they are often examined within the broader framework of an SLD or dyslexia due to overlapping deficits in phonological and orthographic processing. According to estimates by Lyon et al. (2003), approximately 5–15% of school-aged children experience SLDs, encompassing impairments in reading, writing, and spelling. Spelling difficulties are particularly common within this group, frequently co-occurring with reading and writing challenges (Lyon et al., 2003).

Furthermore, the prevalence of spelling disorders is significantly influenced by the orthographic transparency of a language. In languages with opaque orthographies, such as English, spelling errors tend to be more frequent and persistent compared to languages with transparent orthographies, such as Finnish or Italian (Caravolas, 2004). Among English-speaking populations, dyslexia, which often involves significant spelling challenges, affects approximately 7–10% of children (Peterson & Pennington, 2012), with spelling deficits representing a core characteristic of these difficulties. While spelling disorders frequently co-occur with dyslexia, they can also present as distinct learning disabilities, such as specific spelling disorders (Wanzek et al., 2018). Research focused on spelling disorders estimates that 2–7% of children experience persistent spelling difficulties that hinder academic performance, even in the absence of broader reading impairments (V. W. Berninger et al., 2008).

Spelling deficits, encompassing difficulties in accurately recalling and applying orthographic rules, significantly hinder children’s literacy development. Mastery of spelling is vital for effective written communication and closely interlinked with reading proficiency (V. Berninger & Richards, 2010). Transparent orthographies, characterized by consistent phoneme–grapheme mappings, often facilitate faster literacy acquisition. For instance, children learning to read in Finnish, a language with high orthographic transparency, generally achieve decoding skills more quickly than those learning English, an orthographically opaque language (Aro & Wimmer, 2003).

However, while transparent orthographies offer advantages, spelling deficits can still occur, albeit with distinct characteristics compared to those seen in opaque orthographies. Research highlights that core cognitive processes such as phonological awareness, working memory, and orthographic knowledge play a critical role in spelling disorders across all orthographic systems (Caravolas, 2004; Zygouris et al., 2018). Specifically, children with spelling disorders in transparent orthographies often exhibit impairments in phonological processing, which undermine their ability to segment words into phonemes and associate them with graphemes, leading to persistent errors (Goswami, 2011). This perspective underscores the importance of addressing both orthographic and cognitive factors to better understand and support individuals with spelling difficulties.

Cross-linguistic research demonstrates that orthographic transparency significantly shapes the nature of spelling deficits. In transparent orthographies, spelling errors are typically phonologically accurate but orthographically incorrect, indicating a dependence on phonological decoding strategies. In contrast, in opaque orthographies like English, spelling errors often involve both phonological and orthographic inaccuracies due to the irregularity of phoneme–grapheme mappings (Everatt & Elbeheri, 2025). For example, Finnish, with its near-perfect phoneme–grapheme correspondence, promotes rapid literacy development, enabling Finnish-speaking children to achieve decoding proficiency earlier than peers learning languages with less predictable orthographic structures (Lyytinen et al., 2015). Similarly, Spanish, characterized by its high transparency and consistent representation of vowels and consonants, supports early reading and spelling mastery, although occasional ambiguities, such as those involving “b” and “v”, may present challenges (Cummings et al., 2025).

The phonological transparency of languages such as Finnish, Italian, and Spanish places Greek among those favorable for early reading acquisition; however, Greek distinguishes itself through its morphological complexity and diachronic linguistic evolution, introducing challenges absent in languages like Finnish. These unique characteristics position Greek as a valuable model for investigating the interplay between phonological transparency and morphological processing in literacy development (Borleffs et al., 2017).

Moreover, the Greek language is well recognized for its orthographic transparency, characterized by a consistent grapheme-to-phoneme mapping. This systematic correspondence, rooted in the historical evolution of Greek, provides a unique framework for studying the cognitive and educational implications of transparent orthographies (Niolaki et al., 2024). Greek orthography maintains a high degree of phonemic correspondence, reflecting continuity from Ancient to Modern Greek. While Ancient Greek used an alphabet closely aligned with spoken sounds, Modern Greek, despite phonological shifts, has preserved much of its original orthographic structure (Rothou & Padeliadu, 2019).

For instance, the representation of vowel sounds, such as “η”, “ι”, and “υ”, exhibits redundancy due to historical phonological mergers. Nevertheless, Greek orthography remains far more systematic than less transparent languages like English (Caravolas, 2004). This transparency supports literacy acquisition, with studies showing that Greek-speaking children achieve early proficiency in reading accuracy, facilitated by the straightforward grapheme–phoneme correspondence (Giazitzidou et al., 2024). However, despite this advantage, spelling challenges persist, particularly with homophones, which highlight the diachronic complexities of the language (Tsesmeli, 2019).

Furthermore, spelling disorders pose distinct challenges for children in Greece, as mastering Greek orthography requires not only learning straightforward phoneme–grapheme correspondences but also navigating complex morphological and phonological rules unique to the language (Protopapas et al., 2013; Pantazopoulou et al., 2022). Children with spelling disorders often struggle with acquiring accurate and automatic spelling skills, which negatively impact their overall literacy development. These difficulties are frequently linked to deficits in cognitive skills critical for processing and retaining linguistic information, indicating that a comprehensive understanding of these deficits is essential for effective assessment and intervention.

Given these demands, the implementation of a web-based screening tool that evaluates both cognitive and orthographic skills could provide a valuable and efficient solution for early identification and intervention. Such a tool could help address the unique challenges faced by Greek children at risk of spelling disorders by facilitating targeted support and promoting improved literacy outcomes (Zygouris et al., 2015; Politi et al., 2017).

Greek orthography, though relatively transparent due to its consistent phoneme–grapheme correspondence, requires children to develop effective phonological skills to accurately differentiate and apply these relationships. Deficits in phonological awareness can lead to persistent difficulties in representing sounds in written form, resulting in frequent spelling errors (Niolaki et al., 2024). Moreover, limitations in working memory exacerbate these challenges by impairing the retention of morphophonemic patterns, making it difficult for children to apply complex spelling rules consistently, particularly in irregular word forms or morphological structures.

Conjunctionally, spelling competence is rooted in the integration of multiple cognitive processes, including phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and morphological processing (Apel & Lawrence, 2011). Deficiencies in any of these domains often lead to persistent spelling difficulties that resist standard instructional methods (Moats, 2005). Furthermore, research in children with spelling disorders reveals notable differences in brain function compared to typically developing peers. These distinctions have been elucidated through neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG), which highlight divergent processing of written language in these children.

In addition, neuropsychological research has enhanced the understanding of the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying spelling disorders. These disorders frequently involve challenges in encoding phonological, orthographic, and morphological information, often linked to disruptions in specific neural pathways and brain regions. For example, functional neuroimaging studies have demonstrated distinct neural correlates of spelling difficulties. Richards et al. (2018) identified reduced activation in brain areas critical for orthographic processing, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, among individuals with poor spelling skills, suggesting impaired access to or utilization of stored orthographic representations. Similarly, neuropsychological assessments consistently show that children with spelling disorders struggle with phonological processing, a skill essential for segmenting words into phonemes and mapping them to their corresponding graphemes (V. W. Berninger & Amtmann, 2003).

These findings collectively highlight the multifaceted nature of spelling disorders, incorporating cognitive, linguistic, and neurobiological perspectives, and underscore the necessity of targeted interventions to address these interconnected deficits. In typically developing children, orthographic processing during spoken language triggers automatic activation in the left fusiform gyrus, a brain region associated with visual word form recognition and orthographic processing. This activation reflects an integrated interaction between phonological and orthographic systems. However, in children with reading difficulties, which often co-occur with spelling disorders, this activation pattern is absent, suggesting a disruption in the integration of these processing systems (Desroches et al., 2010).

Moreover, children with isolated spelling disorders exhibit distinct brain activation patterns compared to their typically developing peers. For instance, cerebellar activation, which is associated with the automatization of learning and cognitive functions, is notably lacking in children with orthographic deficits during spelling tasks. This absence likely contributes to difficulties in internalizing and applying spelling rules automatically, resulting in persistent spelling errors (Francuz et al., 2013). The role of the cerebellum in these tasks further underscores the complexity of the neural mechanisms underpinning spelling abilities.

Notified findings from EEG studies provide additional insights into the neurophysiological basis of spelling disorders. Children with these disorders often display underspecified orthographic representations which compromise their ability to spell accurately. To compensate, they rely more heavily on sublexical decoding strategies, allowing them to maintain adequate reading skills but exacerbating their spelling difficulties. This compensatory mechanism suggests that the neural correlates of word processing in children with spelling disorders differ markedly from those of typically developing children, particularly in brain regions responsible for the storage and retrieval of orthographic information (Bakos et al., 2018). Together, these studies reveal the intricate interplay between cognitive processes and neural systems in spelling disorders, emphasizing the need for interventions that address both orthographic deficits and the underlying neurophysiological differences.

Behaviorally children with spelling deficits may face working memory disorders. The role of working memory, particularly the phonological loop, is critical in the development of spelling skills. Research (Alloway & Copello, 2013; Shaban et al., 2024; Consalvi et al., 2024) has demonstrated that working memory capacity serves as a predictor of spelling ability, as limitations in holding and manipulating phonological information adversely impact spelling performance. Furthermore, the importance of morphological and semantic components in spelling has been emphasized. For instance, Apel and Diehm (2014) found that deficits in morphological awareness can impede the application of complex morphological rules, contributing to persistent spelling difficulties. These findings underscore the need to integrate neuropsychological insights into educational practices to design targeted interventions. Such interventions can address specific cognitive deficits, bolster neural circuits related to orthographic and phonological processing, and ultimately enhance spelling proficiency.

In addition to the contributions of working memory, other neuropsychological processes, particularly those related to executive functions, play a significant role in spelling development. Among these, inhibitory control is essential for managing attention and suppressing incorrect responses during tasks requiring precise language processing, such as spelling. Individuals with spelling disorders often exhibit difficulties in inhibitory control, further compounding their spelling challenges (Smith-Spark & Fisk, 2007). For example, in a Go/No-Go adaptation for spelling tasks, participants might be required to respond to correctly spelled words (Go) while withholding responses to misspelled words (No-Go). Metrics such as error rates and reaction times provide valuable insights into inhibitory control. Impaired performance on such tasks is commonly observed in children with spelling disorders, reflecting broader deficits in executive function (Helland & Asbjørnsen, 2000).

By combining these findings, it becomes evident that both working memory and executive function deficits contribute to spelling difficulties. Addressing these interconnected cognitive challenges through comprehensive assessments and tailored interventions can significantly improve outcomes for children with spelling disorders (Altmeyer et al., 2024)

It must be noted that visual discrimination tasks, which require analyzing and differentiating patterns or diagrams, play a significant role in spelling by engaging the brain’s capacity to process and distinguish complex visual stimuli. Successful visual discrimination depends on various cognitive processes, including attention, visual processing speed, and working memory, all of which are essential for accurate spelling (Heeringa, 2024). Research suggests that individuals with spelling disorders often face difficulties in these aspects of visual discrimination, which may lead to challenges in distinguishing visually similar letters or words, subsequently affecting their spelling accuracy (Bosse & Valdois, 2009; Khanji, 2024).

Neuroimaging studies provide further evidence for these findings, showing that individuals with specific learning disabilities exhibit distinct activation patterns in brain regions linked to visual processing and attention during visual discrimination tasks. Specifically, altered activity has been observed in the occipital and parietal lobes, regions critical for processing visual information and maintaining focused attention (Jednoróg et al., 2012; Church et al., 2023). These neurological differences likely contribute to the visual discrimination deficits frequently associated with spelling disorders.

Together, these insights highlight the interconnected nature of cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying spelling difficulties. Addressing visual discrimination deficits through targeted interventions may help improve the spelling accuracy of individuals affected by these challenges, emphasizing the importance of a multifaceted approach to supporting literacy development.

1.1. Computer-Based Screening Tests for Dyslexia

Screening spelling development is essential for the early identification of literacy challenges, such as reading and spelling deficits, and for implementing timely interventions. Advances in information and communication technology (ICT) have facilitated the creation of various tools that allow educators and researchers to assess and enhance orthographic skills effectively. Among these, several computer-based tools have shown significant promise. For example, the Phonological and Orthographic Spelling Test (POST) evaluates spelling abilities by requiring children to spell presented words and non-words, targeting both phonological and orthographic skills (Bourassa & Treiman, 2003). Similarly, Lexical Decision Tasks assess word recognition by asking children to identify whether a string of letters forms a valid word. Children with spelling disorders often exhibit higher error rates in recognizing real words compared to pseudo-words, reflecting underlying processing deficits (Frith, 2017).

Alike, with these tools, rapid automatized naming (RAN) tests, traditionally used for reading assessment, have been adapted to computerized formats to evaluate naming speed for letters, numbers, and symbols. Deficits in RAN tasks often correlate with broader spelling challenges in children with spelling difficulties (Wolf & Bowers, 1999). Moreover, recent advancements have integrated eye-tracking technology into spelling assessments (Toki, 2024). Research by Nguyen et al. (2024) demonstrates how gaze patterns, including fixation frequencies and gaze durations during spelling tasks, provide valuable metrics for identifying visual processing deficits in children with spelling disorders. These tools also shed light on reading behaviors, offering insights into orthographic decoding and reading fluency challenges (Radach et al., 2004).

Furthermore, innovative approaches such as Dictation-Based Computer Tests allow children to spell words or sentences presented digitally. These assessments quantitatively compare phoneme–grapheme correspondence errors between groups, highlighting specific deficits (Torgesen et al., 2010). Complementing these, Digital Pen-Based Tests analyze handwriting metrics like stroke timing, pressure, and letter formation in real time, revealing significant differences between children with and without spelling disorders (Gerth et al., 2016).

Phoneme Recognition Tasks offer another important avenue for assessment. These tasks require children to map spoken phonemes to their corresponding graphemes, often exposing weaknesses in phonological processing, particularly with irregular words, among children with spelling difficulties (Snowling, 1998). Complementing these diagnostic tools are educational interventions like GraphoGame, an evidence-based game that builds letter–sound correspondence skills. GraphoGame adjusts to the learner’s progress, making it suitable for various orthographies and effective in improving reading and spelling proficiency (Richardson & Lyytinen, 2014; McTigue et al., 2020).

Tools such as the Dyslexia Screening Test (DST-J) provide a focused assessment of dyslexia and related orthographic difficulties (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2004). Literate, another ICT-based platform, offers real-time feedback and progress tracking while assessing phoneme–grapheme correspondence, aiding both educators and researchers (Literate, 2020). Platforms like LEXIA Core5 further enhance diagnostic capabilities through interactive and engaging exercises targeting phonological and orthographic skills (Strand, 2022). Moreover, gamified platforms such as EduTools Spelling Bee actively engage children in spelling tasks, providing adaptive feedback tailored to their learning pace and error patterns (Malau et al., 2024).

It is important to highlight that there is a notable absence of screening tools for dyslexia in Greece. The primary exception is eMaDys (Protopapas & Skaloumbakas, 2007), a computer-based screening system designed to identify children at risk for reading disabilities within the Greek educational system. eMaDys evaluates skills, including reading accuracy, fluency, comprehension, and spelling.

These advancements in ICT-based tools illustrate the growing potential of technology to enhance spelling assessment and intervention, providing valuable resources for addressing literacy challenges in diverse educational settings.

1.2. Objectives and Hypothesis of the Research Protocol

By leveraging tools like the newly developed web-based screener, early identification for children with spelling deficits can be significantly enhanced, leading to improved literacy outcomes and more effective interventions. The primary aim of this study is the development and implementation of the Askisi-Spelling Deficits (SD) tool, an innovative web-based neuropsychological screening application specifically designed to identify spelling disorders. This tool integrates assessments targeting both spelling challenges and the cognitive deficits commonly associated with these difficulties, as established by prior research. Distinguishing itself from existing methodologies, the Askisi-SD employs a holistic evaluation framework that combines traditional orthographic awareness measures with the assessment of cognitive dimensions such as working memory and response inhibition. To ensure practicality, the tool is designed to minimize participant fatigue while maintaining broad applicability across diverse educational and clinical settings.

Moreover, considering the lack of screening instruments for spelling deficits in the Greek language, a secondary objective of this study is to explore the neuropsychological differences between typically developing children and those with spelling difficulties. These insights are intended to inform the design of the Askisi-SD application, which is grounded in neuropsychological and neurocognitive principles. The architecture of the application emphasizes accessibility and user-friendliness, implementing automatic deployment via web browsers to ensure compatibility across a variety of client systems, making it a versatile tool for educators and clinicians alike.

The present study is guided by two key hypotheses. The first hypothesis posits that Greek students with a prior diagnosis of spelling deficits, as identified through traditional paper-based assessments, will exhibit significantly lower performance levels and longer response times on all six tasks administered through the Askisi-SD application. These tasks include (1) Go/No-Go responses, (2) visual discrimination, (3) auditory working memory, (4) visual working memory, (5) a spelling task focusing on errors in the final syllable, and (6) a spelling task targeting errors in the middle of words. This hypothesis aims to demonstrate the tool’s ability to capture differences in performance across a variety of cognitive and orthographic dimensions.

The second hypothesis proposes that the tasks within the Askisi-SD web-based screener will exhibit satisfactory levels of internal consistency and reliability. This psychometric analysis will confirm the tool’s suitability for screening purposes. Together, these hypotheses aim to establish the Askisi-SD as a comprehensive and accessible instrument for the early screening of spelling deficits.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

A total of 264 right-handed children (142 male, 122 female) aged 9 to 12 years (M = 10.41, SD = 1.12) participated in the study. The first group consisted of 132 children diagnosed with spelling deficits by a state diagnostic center (Centre of Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis and Support, as mandated by Greek law). The comparison group matched 1:1 with the experimental group for age and gender and comprised 132 children without a diagnosis of learning difficulties or any other neurodevelopmental disorders, randomly recruited from the same schools. All participants attended regular school placements and had no documented medical or psychiatric conditions according to their school medical records. The administration of the Askisi-SD screener required approximately 45 min per child. Parental/guardian consent was obtained for all participants. Ethical approval was granted by the University of Thessaly’s Research Ethics Committee under protocol code 29122023, in compliance with the Helsinki Declaration.

2.2. Askisi-SD Neuropsychological Web-Based Screener

The Askisi-SD screener assessed the spelling and cognitive skills of children using a web-based neuropsychological battery of six tasks. These tasks were designed to evaluate essential skills related to spelling deficits. To familiarize participants with the testing procedure, a preliminary training task was conducted, requiring children to click on a picture. During the main test procedure, children’s correct responses were measured across six tasks for spelling and cognitive assessment, which included the following:

1.

Go/No-Go Task

Objective: Measure cognitive control and response selection.

Procedure: Children selected a target image (book) from a set of five randomly presented images (ruler, pencil, globe, pen, eraser). The task included ten correct responses and was categorized under cognitive assessments (Figure 1).

2.

Visual Discrimination Task

Objective: Evaluate visual pattern recognition.

Procedure: Participants completed diagrams (5) and patterns (6) by selecting the correct parts from six possible options. This task was classified under cognitive tasks.

3.

Auditory Working Memory Task

Objective: Assess memory retention and recall for auditory sequences.

Procedure: Children listened to 22 numerical sequences, starting with three digits and increasing to eight. Using a numeric keypad (0–9), they reported the sequences. The task was discontinued after two consecutive or three total errors to minimize participant discomfort and ensure a standardized process.

4.

Visual Working Memory Task

Objective: Test visual memory for sequences.

Procedure: Children were presented with 22 numerical sequences visually, beginning with three digits and progressing to eight. Using a numeric keypad, participants input the recalled sequences. As with the auditory task, the test stopped after two consecutive or three total errors, maintaining consistency in the assessment process.

5.

Spelling Task (1) (Middle Word Errors)

Objective: Assess orthographic skills concerning errors in the middle of words (in historical orthography).

Procedure: Each set consisted of four words, but the errors occurred in the middle part of the words, with one correctly spelled word in each set (12 words) (Figure 2).

6.

Spelling Task (2) (Last Syllable Errors)

Objective: Examine orthographic abilities related to the final syllable (in grammatical orthography).

Procedure: Similarly to the previous spelling task, with one word correctly spelled and three containing errors in the final syllable (14 words) (Figure 3).

Time latency was recorded for all tasks except the Go/No-Go and working memory tasks. In both working memory assessments, testing ceased if a participant made two consecutive or three total errors. The tasks were minimally supervised, with administrators only required to provide the URL for the Askisi-SD application, allowing children to complete the tasks independently.

The application incorporated task difficulty adjustments tailored to the participants’ developmental stages. Children in the third and fourth grades were assessed using spelling tasks (tasks 5 and 6) and visual discrimination task designed to align with their cognitive and linguistic abilities. In contrast, more complex tasks were assigned to fifth- and sixth-grade participants. By adjusting task difficulty to the developmental stages of participants, the Askisi-SD screener ensures that assessments are appropriately challenging, maintaining diagnostic precision while reducing participant fatigue.

2.3. Implementation

We designed and launched a client–server web application equipped with essential features to expand accessibility for a wider audience. Our main objective was to identify and utilize the best web tools to create a responsive and immersive user experience on devices of all sizes, employing a Mobile-first design philosophy while prioritizing future-proof scalability and easy maintenance.

Technology Stack

1.

Front-End:

HTML5: Provides the backbone for organizing content, supporting multimedia features, and ensuring cross-platform compatibility.

CSS3: Manages the styling, with responsive techniques delivering a flexible layout that adapts effortlessly to various screen dimensions.

Vue.js: A modular JavaScript framework that powers dynamic, interactive, and smooth user interfaces.

2.

Back-End:

Laravel: This PHP framework powers the backend, handling routing, user authentication, and API security. Middleware features enhance protection, limit excessive requests, and ensure stable communication.

3.

Database:

MySQL: A relational database that organizes user data, settings, and test results using many-to-many relationships and pivot tables to enhance flexibility, performance, and scalability.

Admin Dashboard

A dedicated dashboard enables full administrative control over all aspects of the application. This interface includes complete create, read, update, and delete (CRUD) capabilities, JSON-based configuration for exercises, and CSV export options for analyzing user statistics and test results.

Security Measures

To safeguard data and ensure the application’s integrity:

• CSRF Tokens: Prevent unauthorized operations by validating session tokens.
• XSS Prevention: Output sanitization is used to block harmful scripts.
• SQL Injection Protection: Uses parameterized queries to avoid injection risks.
• Encrypted Passwords: Bcrypt hashing ensures secure storage of user credentials.
• Secure Connections (HTTPS): Enforces HTTPS to encrypt communication channels.
• Traffic Control (DoS Prevention): Middleware monitors and restricts excessive requests, protecting against denial-of-service (DoS) attempts.

The Askisi-SD screener utilizes a web-based platform to improve accessibility and scalability. This allows for remote administration and minimizes the logistical challenges typically associated with traditional assessment methods. The design ensures standardized conditions across various educational and clinical environments, making the tool especially suitable for large-scale implementation. By adjusting task difficulty to match developmental stages, Askisi-SD guarantees that assessments are suitably challenging for both younger and older children, thereby maximizing diagnostic accuracy and keeping participants engaged across different age groups.

3. Results

Outcomes were assessed using descriptive statistics, and all data analyses were performed using SPSS version 27.0. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and descriptive statistical methods were employed to calculate mean scores, standard deviations, and significance levels for both correct responses and time latency (measured in seconds). These analyses facilitated a comparison between children with spelling deficits, previously diagnosed through traditional paper-and-pencil assessments, and the comparison group, when evaluated using the Askisi-SD web-based neuropsychological screener.

Table 1. Mean scores, standard deviations, and statistical significance in all Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener tasks (correct answers and latency) between children that participated in the control group and children with spelling disorders.

Askisi-SD Tasks	Control Group		Children with Spelling Deficits
	M	SD	M	SD	F	P
Go/No-Go Task.	0.70	0.15	0.20	1.80	18.42	0.001
Visual Discrimination Task.	7.89	2.16	6.20	2.60	33.43	0.001
Visual Discrimination Latency.	2.63	1.42	2.75	1.19	0.001	0.976
Auditory Working Memory Task.	3.67	1.75	2.72	1.70	48.21	0.001
Visual Working Memory Task.	3.89	1.80	2.50	1.48	47.05	0.001
Spelling Task (1).	8.34	2.14	4.53	2.50	47.06	0.001
Spelling Task Latency (1).	1.40	0.69	1.99	0.85	38.24	0.477
Spelling Task (2).	9.36	2.68	5.70	2.65	124.30	0.001
Spelling Task Latency (2).	1.70	0.68	2.13	0.97	17.27	0.001

presents the mean scores, standard deviations and significance of correct answers, and time latency of children that participated in control group and children diagnosed with spelling disorders.

A one-way ANOVA revealed that children with spelling deficits scored significantly lower than their peers in the control group across all six tasks assessed by the Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener (p < 0.001). Additionally, these children required significantly more time on two out of three latency measures, demonstrating statistically higher response times compared to the control group (p < 0.001). However, no significant differences were identified in visual discrimination latency between the two groups (p > 0.05).

Latency data were not available for the Go/No-Go task or the auditory and visual working memory tasks due to design limitations of the web-based screener, which did not support latency recording for these measures. For the auditory and visual working memory tasks, the evaluation was terminated when participants made either two consecutive errors or a total of three errors throughout the task. This protocol ensured consistency in task completion while highlighting areas of potential cognitive difficulty.

The subsequent analysis focused on evaluating the internal consistency and reliability of the Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener. Tasks were divided into two groups based on their indices (odd-indexed and even-indexed), and total scores for each group were computed. The correlation between the scores of these two groups was analyzed to calculate the split-half correlation, providing an initial measure of the tool’s internal consistency.

To adjust for the shortened length of each split group and provide a more accurate estimate of overall reliability, the Spearman–Brown coefficient was calculated. This metric accounts for the division of tasks and extends the reliability estimation to the full scale. The results of these analyses are summarized and presented in Figure 4, offering insights into the reliability metrics of the Askisi-SD screener.

As shown in Figure 4, the split-half correlation for the Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener was determined to be r = 0.64, indicating moderate reliability between the odd- and even-numbered task groups. Furthermore, the Spearman–Brown coefficient was calculated as r = 0.78, demonstrating good reliability for the full-length assessment after adjusting for the split-half division. These results highlight the screener’s consistency in evaluating spelling deficits across its task components.

4. Discussion

The Askisi-SD web-based screener was developed to assess orthographic and cognitive abilities identified by neuropsychological and cognitive research (e.g., Akyurek et al., 2024; Han, 2025) as critical contributors to orthographic difficulties. This innovative tool aims to integrate these research findings into a practical, user-friendly framework for evaluating spelling deficits and related cognitive challenges.

The evaluation of the Askisi-SD screener revealed statistically significant differences across all six tasks. Children with spelling deficits performed significantly worse and exhibited longer response times compared to their peers in the control group in five out of six tasks. However, in the latency of the visual discrimination task, the increased response times for children with spelling deficits were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), partially supporting the study’s primary hypothesis by illustrating variability in cognitive processing impacts.

Furthermore, studies that have investigated orthographic deficits in children, consistently identifying statistically significant differences in orthographic skills between those with spelling difficulties and controls. For example, an orthographic skill recovery program for adolescents with dyslexia and dysorthography demonstrated substantial post-intervention improvements. Initial assessments revealed severe deficits relative to controls, characterized by significantly higher orthographic error rates and prolonged processing times (Zuppardo et al., 2017). Similarly, research into rapid automatized naming (RAN) identified that children with spelling deficits scored significantly lower in orthographic fluency compared to their peers, with general visual ability moderating these outcomes. Orthographic fluency emerged as a critical factor distinguishing children with and without spelling difficulties (Tiron et al., 2021).

In addition, adolescents with specific learning disabilities exhibited significant challenges in orthographic recall and response accuracy, underscoring the pronounced difficulties in orthographic processing relative to controls (Sarti et al., 2019). A study focusing on Italian dyslexic children found that, while their item recall accuracy matched that of controls, they displayed significant impairments in orthographic influences during memory tasks, further highlighting the orthographic-specific deficits linked to spelling disorders (Rizzato, 2013).

Likewise, several studies have highlighted the difficulties experienced by children with spelling and literacy-related challenges. Rothe et al. (2025) found that children with orthographic impairments performed significantly lower on computer-based spelling assessments involving keyboard input. This outcome suggests that the increased cognitive demands of typing and navigating digital interfaces may disproportionately affect children with limited fine motor skills and weakened orthographic processing abilities. Along the same lines, Mohai et al. (2022) identified notable performance disparities in adaptive computer-based diagnostic systems. Specifically, children with reading and writing difficulties obtained lower scores, particularly on tasks assessing orthographic knowledge and executive functioning. These observations are further corroborated by the findings of Jung et al. (2021), who demonstrated that children with dyslexia and orthographic deficits exhibited reduced accuracy and slower response times in digital spelling tasks, with statistically significant differences noted in both error rates and processing speed.

Taken together, these findings reinforce the challenges faced by children with spelling disorders in orthographic processing and emphasize the necessity of orthographic-specific assessment. By addressing orthographic and cognitive deficits directly (Shaban et al., 2024; Striftou et al., 2024), tools like the Askisi-SD screener may play a role in the screening of spelling disorders of children.

The second hypothesis of this study aimed to evaluate the consistency of tasks within the Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener. Using the Odd-Even Method, test items were divided into two subsets, and the correlation between these subsets demonstrated a moderate level of agreement. Additionally, the Spearman–Brown coefficient, adjusted for the full test length, confirmed the high internal consistency of the screener. These findings support the hypothesis that the tasks reliably assess targeted constructs, as indicated by both accuracy (correct responses) and latency data across all six tasks.

Reliability is a critical feature of screening tools for assessing spelling disorders, ensuring consistent and accurate identification of orthographic processing difficulties. Studies have examined the psychometric properties of such tools, including measures of internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and validity, to confirm their robustness. High internal consistency is often demonstrated through methods like split-half reliability and Cronbach’s alpha, with correlations between item subsets and Spearman–Brown coefficients further validating these tools’ reliability in measuring orthographic skills (e.g., Zuppardo et al., 2017; Zygouris et al., 2025).

Additionally, standardized instruments such as the Orthographic Skill Assessment Battery (OSAB) have demonstrated high test–retest reliability, yielding stable results across repeated administrations. This level of reliability is particularly essential for longitudinal research and intervention programs designed to address spelling difficulties (Tiron et al., 2021). Tools like the Phonological Orthographic Screening Test (POST) further reinforce psychometric validity by consistently aligning with other established assessments. These tools effectively distinguish children with orthographic deficits from typically developing peers. Key indicators such as error rates and response latencies exhibit strong correlations with traditional orthographic processing measures, reinforcing the diagnostic precision of these assessments (Sarti et al., 2019). Collectively, these findings underscore the robustness of spelling disorder screeners, ensuring they serve as dependable tools for accurately evaluating orthographic processing skills.

Building on this foundation, Chen et al. (2024) introduced a short-form Computer-Based Orthographic Processing Assessment, developed using cognitive diagnostic modeling. The 60-item instrument demonstrated solid psychometric performance, with evidence supporting both convergent and concurrent validity, as well as acceptable internal consistency. A complementary study by Chen et al. (2022) reported similarly strong reliability and construct validity for the full version of the assessment, confirming its ability to accurately differentiate children based on their orthographic profiles. Supporting these findings, Auphan et al. (2020) reported that digital orthographic assessment tools improve reliability through consistent task delivery and automated scoring. These results highlight the utility of computer-based assessments for standardized and scalable implementation in educational settings. Moreover, Singleton (2021) emphasized that digital tools not only increase children’s engagement but also enhance test–retest reliability, suggesting their valuable role in both research and classroom-based screening contexts.

The Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener may be a tool for psychoeducational applications, offering reliable and accessible assessments of cognitive and neuropsychological abilities. Its web-based format makes it particularly suitable for clinical and educational contexts, providing insights into cognitive and behavioral profiles of children, including those with spelling disorders (Shaban et al., 2024; Katsarou et al., 2025). The screener evaluates multiple domains of cognitive function, such as orthographic processing, visual and auditory working memory, and executive functions like response inhibition, measured through tasks like the Go/No-Go task. These comprehensive assessments are essential for identifying cognitive deficits underlying orthographic disabilities.

Similarly, as supported by the findings, the Askisi-SD screener demonstrates high reliability, as indicated by split-half reliability analyses showing correlations between task subsets, alongside strong Spearman–Brown coefficients. Measures of accuracy and latency further suggest its capacity to reliably assess targeted cognitive constructions. Additionally, its online platform ensures accessibility for remote administration in schools and clinical settings, scalability for large-scale psychoeducational evaluations, and standardized testing conditions, thereby minimizing variability in administration and enhancing its utility (Jan & Khan, 2023; Toki, 2024).

Despite these strengths, the screener has certain limitations. One notable limitation is the absence of latency data for some tasks, such as the Go/No-Go task and the auditory and visual working memory tasks. While latency is a critical metric for understanding processing speed and efficiency, its omission in these tasks limits the screener’s capacity to capture indirect cognitive differences. This limitation stems from design constraints prioritizing user-friendly and scalable implementation over detailed time-tracking capabilities. Future iterations could incorporate advanced timing mechanisms to provide more comprehensive assessments of cognitive processing speed (Kivirähk-Koor & Kiive, 2025).

Another limitation involves cultural and linguistic biases inherent in the design of some tasks. Although the screener was specifically tailored to the Greek educational context, its cultural and linguistic specificity may restrict its generalizability to other populations. For instance, tasks involving Greek orthography may not directly apply to languages with different orthographic transparency or morphological complexity. To address this, future adaptations could include culturally neutral tasks or localized versions tailored to linguistic and educational norms in other regions, increasing the tool’s versatility and relevance.

These limitations highlight the importance of ongoing refinement and validation of the Askisi-SD screener to enhance its applicability across diverse populations and task domains. Future research should prioritize longitudinal studies to track children’s performance over time, offering deeper insights into the screener’s predictive ability for long-term literacy outcomes and the effectiveness of early interventions. Such studies could explore how improvements in cognitive and orthographic skills translate to academic performance and whether the screener’s recommendations lead to measurable literacy gains. Longitudinal validation would also suggest the tool’s capacity to monitor progress and guide individualized intervention plans (Peretti et al., 2024).

Expanding the Askisi-SD screener for international use represents a significant opportunity to broaden its impact. Modifying the tool for diverse orthographic systems, such as the opaque orthographies of English or the logographic characters of Chinese, would enhance its applicability across linguistic and cultural contexts (Ding et al., 2025). This could involve developing localized task versions that respect unique phonological and morphological rules while preserving the core cognitive and orthographic assessment framework. Establishing cross-linguistic equivalency through rigorous validation in these settings would ensure the screener’s global relevance and effectiveness, paving the way for broader adoption in literacy interventions worldwide.

5. Conclusions

The Askisi-SD neuropsychological web-based screener represents an advancement in screening cognitive and orthographic abilities in children, particularly within the context of transparent orthographies such as Greek. By integrating a comprehensive set of tasks targeting both cognitive and orthographic deficits, the screener provides a framework for identifying spelling disorders. This study suggests the screener’s efficacy, demonstrating that children with spelling deficits performed lower and exhibited longer response times across all tasks compared to their peers without learning difficulties. The psychometric evaluation of the Askisi-SD screener revealed internal reliability, as evidenced by the split-half correlation and Spearman–Brown coefficient. Compared to established tools such as the POST, the Askisi-SD screener achieves robust internal reliability and incorporates latency measures where feasible. This dual focus on accuracy and processing efficiency, distinguishes Askisi-SD as a tool capable of providing nuanced insights into cognitive and orthographic deficits. Additionally, its web-based format ensures accessibility, scalability, and standardized administration, making it particularly valuable for clinical and educational applications.

Despite its strengths, the absence of latency data for certain tasks and the potential for cultural biases in task design highlight areas for refinement. Addressing these limitations in future iterations could enhance the screener’s generalizability and capacity to capture nuanced cognitive differences.

The findings of this study support the utility of the Askisi-SD screener as a practical and scalable solution for early identification of spelling deficits, enabling targeted interventions to improve literacy outcomes. Continued research and development are essential to refine the screener’s capabilities and expand its applicability across diverse linguistic and cultural contexts, ensuring its effectiveness in supporting children with orthographic disorders globally.

This study contributes to the growing body of research on neuropsychological screening tools and emphasizes the importance of integrating cognitive and orthographic assessments to address literacy challenges effectively. Future directions should explore cross-linguistic applications and longitudinal studies to further validate the tool’s impact on literacy development and intervention outcomes.