Children’s Gender Worldviews: Exploring Gender, Diversity, and Participation Through Postmodern Picture Books

Abstract

Postmodern picture books offer valuable opportunities for children to engage with multiple perspectives and develop critical thinking skills. When used in pedagogical practices that prioritize children’s rights, agency, and voices, these books can effectively challenge dominant social norms and promote justice and equity. Within the framework of the SMOOTH project (Educational Common Spaces, Passing through Enclosures and Reversing Inequalities, Horizon 2020, EU), this qualitative study explores how children aged six to eight attending a public primary school in Lisbon, Portugal, make sense of gender through postmodern picture books. Grounded in the Educational Studies and Sociology of Childhood, the research analyses children’s understandings of gender and the meanings they construct concerning it. A six-month intervention program, consisting of read-aloud sessions, was conducted with children from diverse linguistic and socioeconomic backgrounds. Data were collected through focus groups and observation. Qualitative content analysis highlights how picture books can stimulate critical discussions on the social construction of gender, providing children with opportunities to reflect on differences, power relations, and social change. These findings indicate that embedding a care perspective further strengthens the recognition of children’s lived experiences and enriches educational practices by fostering inclusiveness and deeper understanding.

1. Introduction

The widespread prevalence of (hetero)patriarchy, inequalities, and violence against women, both in private and public settings, along with dating violence, sexual harassment, wage disparities, femicide, transphobia, and the resurgence of conservative ideologies promoting traditional gender roles, reveals that gender inequality remains a persistent issue in many parts of the world, in the 21st century. In Portugal, gender equity debates have gained increasing prominence over the past years, particularly in public policy and the education system. However, significant challenges persist, particularly in addressing deeply ingrained cultural and societal gender stereotypes, as well as the growing influence of the far right, which promotes a sexist, classist, and racist agenda and discourses (Monteiro et al., 2024; Marques da Silva, 2002; Ferreira & Tomás, 2022; Ferreira & Borges, 2024). This dynamic reinforces and exacerbates, among other aspects, the structural vulnerability of childhood by positioning children as passive objects devoid of agency or recognition (James & Prout, 2001; Gonçalves et al., 2024).

This ongoing reality highlights the importance of developed research focusing on gender issues among and with children. These efforts are crucial both for gaining deeper insights into gender inequality and for developing effective strategies to address and reduce it, with children participating as active agents in the process. Additionally, the research has increasingly demonstrated the close connection between gender inequality and education from early childhood and how social inequities and cultural capital of class can affect these perceptions and actions (Ferreira, 2002; Pereira, 2012; Ferreira & Tomás, 2022). Childhood is a formative period during which children actively engage with and negotiate social norms, values, and expectations related to gender. These early experiences are influenced by various socializing agents, including family and other adults, peers, media, and educational settings. Schools serve as microcosms of society, reflecting and reproducing broader cultural narratives about gender roles, inequalities, power dynamics, and participation. As such, they hold significant potential to either perpetuate harmful stereotypes or act as transformative spaces for fostering equity and inclusion (Gonçalves et al., 2024; Ferreira, 2002; Pereira, 2012; Ferreira & Tomás, 2022).

‘Childhood’ is a complex concept in children’s sociology and a subject of conflicting definitions. Indeed, James and Prout (2001) state that, quite simply, it is impossible to view childhood only as a natural stage of the human life course. It appears that modern sociological imagination articulates the dilemma of reconciling regard for pluralism, understanding children, and recognizing the global culture as rather a social construction that varies across societies and even within the same society. This recognition has led to a deeper examination of how factors such as gender interplay with the experience and conceptualization of childhood.

Recent studies (Keddell, 2023; Liebel, 2020; Pincock et al., 2023) reveal that how children’s rights to participation intersect with a growing awareness of social inequalities has received little attention from the scientific community. To this day, few situations consider children’s social context, including norms related to culture and class and oppressive structural relations. However, “communities reflecting children’s way be more able to full recognition to children and enable their participation more effectively” (Keddell, 2023, p. 1).

For Butler (1994), gender issues are a repeated and performative act, socially constructed rather than an intrinsic characteristic. Children reproduce gender norms early on through social interactions, play, and education. One of the tools for fostering gender equity in early education lies in the content and pedagogical approaches employed in schools. Therefore, getting children to reflect on controversial topics can create meaningful learning experiences that engage them as informed and active citizens, as well as establish a link between educational processes and social justice regarding controversial issues, thus promoting the inclusion of children who are usually marginalized in the education system and society in general (Whitford, 2023). Literature, for example, plays a significant role in shaping children’s worldviews and perceptions of gender. For instance, stories and characters in picture books can reinforce traditional stereotypes or challenge and expand children’s understanding of gender roles.

Children’s literature emerges as a strategic resource for fostering critical awareness of gender roles. However, in Portugal, the availability and use of children’s books explicitly addressing gender diversity remain limited, often facing cultural and political resistance. This highlights the need to expand access to inclusive educational materials and to train educators to facilitate discussions on gender in a reflective and transformative means (Gonçalves et al., 2024).

This paper examines children’s understanding of gender and the subjective meanings they attach to gender through postmodern picture books. To this end, a six-month, read-aloud intervention program was implemented with 22 children. Although the intervention program developed with these children explored books on other themes related to diversity and participation, this article only looks at the exploration of gender.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Gender Equity and Childhood

Gender stereotypes and discrimination persist widely in the social, economic, and political spheres, harming all people who challenge traditional and binary gender norms (Meyer, 2015; Monteiro et al., 2024).

The concept of gender equity transcends the simplistic notion of treating boys and girls the same. Instead, it involves recognizing and addressing the unique barriers and systemic inequalities that individuals face based on their gender identities. In the context of childhood, this includes challenging traditional gender roles, promoting equal opportunities for all children, and ensuring that no child is disadvantaged or excluded based on their perceived or self-identified gender. As a key institution in shaping societal values, education is well-positioned to advance gender equity by promoting critical thinking, empathy, and respect for diversity from an early age.

However, achieving gender equity in education requires addressing deeply ingrained stereotypes, power imbalances, and intersecting forms of oppression that affect children differently depending on their race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and cultural background. The intersectional lens is, therefore, essential to understanding how various identities interact to shape children’s experiences of gender. For instance, girls from marginalized communities often face compounded challenges, experiencing gender discrimination alongside racial or economic inequities. Similarly, boys are frequently subjected to rigid norms of masculinity that limit their emotional expression and participation in activities traditionally deemed “feminine”. Recognizing and addressing these intersecting factors is critical to creating an inclusive and equitable educational environment (Whitford, 2023; Gonçalves et al., 2024; Ferreira, 2002; Pereira, 2012; Ferreira & Tomás, 2022; Baker-Sperry, 2006).

When mentioned the concept of gender is generally considered in binary terms. It is most often reduced to a list of differences between boys and girls without the differences being analyzed in more depth (Bartholomaeus & Senkevics, 2015). In addition, children are not questioned about the meaning of these differences or how these meanings are constructed, thus lacking “a critical standpoint that accounts for the social construction of gender and the influence of gender relations and hierarchies among children” (Bartholomaeus & Senkevics, 2015, p. 1).

Similarly, other authors point to the lack of studies on gender inequality (Whitford, 2023), with traditional views of masculinity prevailing (Engebretson, 2014). In addition to the prevalence of this aspect, it is also important to emphasize that curricula continue to pay little attention to these issues, either due to the total absence of reflection on these themes or due to approaches that are still very embryonic, revealing very timid approaches by adults to these themes (Gonçalves et al., 2024). Nevertheless, when schools do not challenge or question stereotypical gender perceptions in the classroom, these can become more deeply rooted and perpetuated over time and for generations to come.

However, studies in this area have shown the need and urgency of working on these issues early on with children, from an early intervention perspective, to reduce and mitigate certain stereotypes and preconceptions from an early age. For example, a study of 420 children aged 3.5 to 6.9 in the USA concluded that “children expected boys to have higher status, defined by access to resources and decision-making power (for example, having more toys and choosing what other people play with)” (Mandalaywala et al., 2020, p. 10). Therefore, “children placed the boy higher on the rope than the girl, a response pattern in line with societal stereotypes about gender and status. However, this effect was modified by children’s gender” (Mandalaywala et al., 2020, p. 11).

On their side, other research (Solbes-Canales et al., 2020) aimed to analyze the degree of internalization of gender prejudices in a group of 149 children between the ages of four and nine in Spain, and the results showed that the children prioritized traditional gender roles imposed by society from an early age, especially regarding masculine attributes. Boys were more aware of what was expected around masculinity, while girls more often attributed roles associated with femininity to women. As in other studies, this study also found that “younger children already apply gender roles as part of their increasing acquisition of knowledge in the social field, but there is a big increase in the strength of this bias as they grow older” (Solbes-Canales et al., 2020, p. 1). The conclusions lead to questions about the educational implications of these results, making early and intentional educational intervention increasingly necessary to promote equity in schools, the family, and society. Promoting more equitable environments will also serve fairer and more democratic societies.

Other studies, namely those developed in Germany, confirm that stereotypes held by society in general, parents, family members, and educators can influence children’s perceptions and beliefs about gender (Ebert et al., 2024). In research into food-related gender stereotypes, boys showed implicit gender stereotypes associating meat with boys (Guidetti et al., 2014). Children should be aware of how dichotomous views of gender reinforce gender inequality (Whitford, 2023). They should also be able to recognize their reactions to various gender expressions to acknowledge the differences positively. Numerous studies on gender and childhood have been developed in Portugal with a common understanding that gender identities are socially and culturally produced processes of masculinity and femininity that are shaped by and influenced by power relations (Davies, 1997; Marques da Silva, 2002; Ferreira, 2002; Pereira, 2012; Ferreira & Tomás, 2022; Baker-Sperry, 2006). These studies emphasize the active role that children and youth play in creating their gender identities and relationships. Negotiations, acceptance, policing, and exclusion within and between genders enable them to (re)produce social differentiations between the “feminine” and the “masculine”, frequently through normative heterosexuality. In this sense, it is essential to promote awareness of gender inequality and provide children and young people with opportunities to think critically and collaboratively about gender norms and roles.

2.2. Gendered Education

For several decades, the school environment has been recognized as a place of gender discrimination, with research indicating that school practices often reinforce rather than challenge stereotypical gender perceptions (Baker-Sperry, 2006), as well as various forms of violence. For example, in Portugal, the National Bullying Observatory (Ferreira & Borges, 2024) reports that girls in the first cycle of primary education are the most affected by bullying in schools.

Normative gender is transmitted through countless daily interactions and exposure to educational resources that reinforce traditional gender views. As previously documented (Whitford, 2023; Davies, 1997; Marques da Silva, 2002; Ferreira, 2002), gender stereotypes emerge early in childhood and are continuously reinforced throughout schooling, highlighting the need for further research in this area.

Gender equity is not merely about creating equitable outcomes but also about fostering inclusive processes that value the perspectives and experiences of all children. By centering children’s voices (Hanna & Lundy, 2021) in discussions about gender, educators can gain valuable insights into how gender is experienced and constructed in diverse contexts, allowing for the development of more responsive and effective educational practices and undermining the fundamental humanist distinction between nature and culture by subverting the gender and sexuality binary that supports heteronormativity.

A study to examine how primary school students think about gender roles and norms before and after participating in an intervention program involving social studies and critical literacy states that critical literacy is a promising practice for critically analyzing one’s thinking about gender, thus beginning to deconstruct gender-based stereotypes (Smolkin & Young, 2011). However, besides curricula, the materials and resources used, such as literary texts, reinforce traditional conceptions of gender, further justifying the need to counteract these pedagogical practices.

This assumption reminds us that educational processes and pedagogical practices are influenced by and often operate on the naturalization of gender and sexual differences and inequalities, even though we know sociologically that they are neither socially neutral nor unilinear. This is why it is crucial to understand how children make sense of gender.

2.3. Using Postmodern Picture Books to Discuss Controversial Themes Like Gender

Books have been used throughout the ages to teach reading and provide pleasure in reading, especially at school. More recently, picture books for children and young people have been used to explore different perspectives, allowing new meanings to be constructed. These books expose children to complex narratives (Gonçalves et al., 2024).

In postmodern picture books, words and illustrations work together to create a unique reading experience. These picture books challenge the reader’s expectations by using techniques such as illustrations that contradict the text, multiple narrators, non-linear narratives, and breaking the fourth wall. These techniques involve the reader in the storytelling process, making them co-authors who make choices about how to interpret the text. Each reading can result in a different story, showing that there is no single way to tell a story. Postmodern books often defy traditional expectations, offering diverse perspectives and counter-narratives (Strouse et al., 2018; Goldstone, 2004; Tondreau, 2024).

Postmodern illustrated books are increasingly challenging and thought-provoking, arousing curiosity and interest among children, adults, critics, and researchers (Ramos, 2020). This publishing segment is considered one of the most innovative in children’s literature, contributing significantly to the development of more capable and critical readers from an early age. Several authors suggest using these books in the classroom, as they can increase children’s awareness of the world and their role in it (Norris, 2020; Wild, 2023; O’Neil, 2010). Moreover, these books allow multiple points of view to be explored without political or religious impositions (O’Neil, 2010) and can be incorporated into daily school practices through reading aloud.

Culturally authentic children’s books play a crucial role in promoting inclusivity, benefiting both minority and other students by reducing the misunderstandings and stereotypes they have about minority groups. Such literature provides minority cultures with positive role models that lead these students to develop cultural pride (Russel, 2009).

The development of literacy with explicit pedagogical intentions continues to be a pressing need in schools today. When it comes to exploring literature with children, it can contribute to the construction of meanings about the real and social world, reinforcing or deconstructing stereotypes. However, there is a consensus that school textbooks, as well as most of the literature for children and young people, only transmit a binary and cisnormative view of gender identities (Coats, 2019), conveying stereotypical portrayals of masculinity and femininity. However, if literature aims to develop a critical sense in each reader from an early age, carefully and intentionally selecting literary materials and texts to explore in the classroom with children is a necessary practice. This also ensures that educators can access texts that allow them to work on complex and controversial issues with children.

The postmodern picture books, emphasizing narrative complexity, diverse characters, and subversion of traditional norms, offer a unique opportunity to explore issues of gender equity, diversity, and participation from children’s perspectives. Such books often present alternative narratives that encourage children to question societal norms, engage in critical dialogue, and imagine new possibilities for identity and agency. The picture books for children mark a creative evolution in children’s literature. These books are distinguished by a break with conventional narrative frameworks, presenting non-linear structures and open-ended conclusions that stimulate the reader’s imagination and active participation (Smolkin & Young, 2011; Coats, 2019). Postmodern picture books also stand out for the reflexivity that their content allows, calling into question the very nature of narration and representation (Backman, 2024). By involving the reader in interactive choices and crossing the boundaries between fiction and reality, these works encourage a playful and creative approach to reading (Hoppe, 2022). Moreover, these books attract children’s attention by tackling themes such as diversity, inclusion, and relevant social issues and help shape critical and reflective readers (Husband, 2019; Strouse et al., 2018; Norris, 2020).

Other authors reported on pedagogical practices enabling the exploitation of social justice to be addressed in the primary classroom through postmodern picture books (Cunningham & Enriquez, 2013). However, the children’s point of view was not considered. Several studies confirm that children can understand social justice issues. Between 3 and 6 months, babies are aware of racial differences (Cunningham & Enriquez, 2013). In preschool, between 3 and 5 years of age, it has been observed that children categorize people by race, express racial prejudice, and make race-based choices about whom to include and exclude from their play (Aboud & Doyle, 1996; Hirschfeld, 2008; Patterson & Bigler, 2006; Van Ausdale & Feagin, 2001). These findings highlight the need to allow children to talk about and examine what they see, feel, and experience (Agarwal-Rangnath, 2020). However, having conversations around race and diversity can be challenging, and adults may want to avoid them (Wild, 2023). A study examining adult perceptions of children’s social identity found that parents and teachers often do not regularly discuss their identity with their children (Kotler et al., 2019). In addition, researchers (Sullivan et al., 2021) concluded that some adults may be slow to discuss race with children because they underestimate children’s capacity for this type of reasoning. However, children need opportunities to learn about themselves and the diverse identities of those around them and to understand and appreciate the similarities and differences between individuals (Wild, 2023). To our knowledge, children’s views, particularly those of those under eight, have never been considered. Research suggests, however, that knowledge of the extent and implications of gender and racial stereotypes emerges around age six and increases with age (Brown & Bigler, 2005; McKown & Weinstein, 2003). Children’s understanding of others’ false beliefs is linked to several aspects of social perception from 4 to 5 years (Wellman et al., 2001). More recently, some research has explored the link between equity, diversity, and inclusion through disciplines (mathematics and science) and postmodern picture books at the primary level (Cidreira & Faustino, 2021).

Recent studies (Earles, 2017; Kneeskern & Reeder, 2020; Falkner & Clark, 2018) have explored how children engage with literature that challenges gender norms. A study examined preschool children’s responses to stories featuring a girl protagonist in an adventure narrative and a boy protagonist in a love story. The findings revealed that children tended to value traditionally masculine adventure stories while overlooking narratives centered on traditionally feminine themes of love and care. While the adventurous girl was readily accepted, the caring boy was seen as unlikely (Earles, 2017).

Other studies found that upper elementary students showed shifts in gender perceptions after reading a full-length book featuring characters in counter-stereotypical roles, particularly among boys (Kneeskern & Reeder, 2020) or emphasized that actively involving students in selecting books with diverse representations fostered a safer and more supportive school environment, where students collaborated toward social justice (Falkner & Clark, 2018).

Postmodern picture books have been used in research to explore complex themes such as social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion. However, this research has mainly focused on using postmodern picture books in formal learning of reading, grammar, or even other subjects such as mathematics or science (Ciecierski et al., 2017; Bradfield & Exley, 2020; Magalhães et al., 2022; Combs & Higgins, 2023; Moffit, 2023). Studies that encourage this type of book to support exploring complex social themes with children from an early age, promoting awareness and a critical stance, are still needed (Gonçalves et al., 2024; Wild, 2023).

3. Methodology and Ethics

The study occurred in an urban public school in Lisbon and involved 22 second-grade children, including 13 boys and 9 girls, aged 6 to 8 years (see

Table 1. Sociodemographic characterization of children.

Age	Boys	Girls	Total
6 years old	Manuel 1		1
7 years old	Afonso 1 Samir 2 Rafael 1,** Eugénio 1,** Caetano 1 Lucas 1 Gonçalo 1 José 3,* Joaquim Denis 1 Paulo Cristiano 1
		Valentina 4 Madalena 1 Helena 5,** Natália 1 Teresa 1 Diana 1 Mariana 1	19
8 years old		Sofia 1 Juliana 5,**	2
Total	13	9	22

Underlined names: children who participated in the focus groups. ¹ Portuguese; ² Pakistani; ³ Nigerian; ⁴ Venezuelan; ⁵ Brazilian; * Native Language Portuguese; ** Variety of Portuguese. The children’s names are fictitious.

). This research followed a qualitative approach, carried out between December 2022 and June 2023, in line with established protocols for research with children. Most of these children come from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds or minority status, marked by linguistic and cultural diversity. The children came from a low social class, with few economic and socio-cultural resources and no family literacy habits. Most of the children did not speak the school language. For children from Pakistan, Venezuela, and Nigeria, is a second language, and those who speak Portuguese or a variety of Portuguese, such as Brazilian children, do not master the linguistic code used at school. These are children who have difficulty understanding the language of the school. The class teacher, aged 44 with a decade of experience, has worked at this school for the past four years.

Data collection occurred across several phases: (i) the implementation of a six-month, read-aloud intervention program (see

Table 2. Read-aloud program outline (selection of picture books regarding the gender discussion).

Date and Time of Session	Books	Number of Children and Adults
18 January 2023 1 h	Parr, T. Não faz mal ser diferente [It’s okay to be different]; Little, Brown and Company: New York, NY, USA, 2006.	10 children and a researcher
23 January 2023 1 h	Bacelar, M. O livro do Pedro [The Book of Peter]; Editorial Presença: Lisboa, Portugal, 2008.	7 children and a researcher
30 January 2023 1 h	Estrela, J. Os vestidos do Tiago [Tiago’s Dresses]; Kalandraka: Lisbon, Portugal, 2016.	7 children and a researcher
9 March 2023 1 h	Matoso, M. Todos fazemos tudo [We All Do Everything]; Planeta Tangerina: Lisboa, Portugal, 2011.	5 children and a researcher
21 March 2023 e 22 March 2023 2 h	Love, J. O Jaime é uma Sereia [Jaime is a Mermaid]; Editorial Presença: Lisboa, Portugal, 2020.	13 children, a researcher, and a teacher
30 March 2023 1 h	Bundo, M., & Twiss, J. Um dia na vida de Marlon Bundo [A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo]; Planeta Tangerina: Lisboa, Portugal, 2018.	14 children, a researcher, and a teacher
17 April 2023 1 h	Quintiá, X.; Quarello, M. A. C. Titiritesa. Kalandraka: Matosinhos, Portugal, 2008.	14 children and a researcher

); (ii) participant and non-participant observations; and (iii) three focus groups—two with four children each and one with five. Observation and focus group discussions were the core data collection methods, offering a nuanced view of the children’s interactions and learning experiences.

As part of the Horizon 2020-funded SMOOTH project—“Educational Common Spaces, Passing through Enclosures and Reversing Inequalities”—and the RED (Rights, Equality, Difference) subproject, this study aimed to explore children’s perceptions of key categories central to the RED framework. These categories were analyzed through the children’s engagement with postmodern picture books. Although initial analytical categories were predefined, they were iteratively refined based on fieldwork, children’s interests, and their suggestions. This paper foregrounds gender as a critical theme, underscoring its significance in the children’s narratives.

Methodologically, this study adopted a qualitative descriptive approach (Becker, 2007), employing a case study design complemented by field notes (Karsenti & Demers, 2018). The data analysis strategy was structured around an iterative coding process that integrated both deductive and inductive techniques. The analysis followed the principles of thematic analysis (Naeem et al., 2023), ensuring a systematic approach to identifying patterns within the data. Initially, deductive coding was initially employed, guided by predefined analytical categories derived from the theoretical framework. These categories provided a structured lens through which the data were first examined. However, as the analysis progressed, inductive coding was incorporated to capture emergent themes that were not anticipated in the initial framework. This iterative process involved continuous refinement of codes through multiple readings of the data, allowing for a dynamic interplay between theory-driven expectations and data-driven insights (Karsenti & Demers, 2018; Dionne, 2018). By integrating these two approaches, the study ensured a comprehensive and flexible analytical process that remained responsive to the complexities of children’s narratives and interactions. Initially, predefined analytical categories guided the coding process. However, as data collection progressed, these categories were refined based on fieldwork insights, children’s expressed interests, and their emerging narratives. Data coding was conducted manually and involved multiple readings of the transcripts to identify recurring patterns and significant themes. Saturation was assessed through the recurrence of key themes across multiple data sources, including observations and focus group discussions, ensuring that new data no longer introduced significant novel insights. Analytical traceability was maintained through systematic coding procedures, researcher reflexivity, and cross-validation among team members, enhancing the reliability of the findings. The emergence of gender as a critical theme was not only anticipated by the theoretical framework but also strongly reflected in children’s discussions and interactions. This iterative coding process ensured that the findings remained grounded in children’s lived experiences while maintaining coherence with the study’s conceptual foundations and the broader themes of the SMOOTH Project.

The case study rigorously adhered to ethical principles, including confidentiality, privacy, and anonymity with the school’s name and children’s names. The choice to assign children fictitious names rather than identifying them solely by acronyms addresses two fundamental concerns. First, it seeks to safeguard their right to identity, preventing them from being reduced to impersonal codes that strip them of individuality in academic discourse. Second, this choice challenges the common practice of treating children merely as data sources, concealing them behind anonymous labels. Assigning names—albeit fictitious and, whenever possible, negotiated with them—acknowledges their individuality and agency while ensuring the ethical anonymity required in research. Furthermore, this approach actively involves children in the knowledge-production process, counteracting extractivist practices that silence and objectify them (Spyrou, 2024). While the children voluntarily participated in all proposed activities, the school’s administration chose the group for the SMOOTH project. In the case of this research, the classroom teacher provided the time and space for the research team to carry out the intervention with the children, without raising any objections or promoting parallel dynamics related to this issue. Our approach was guided by the principles of negotiation and ethical symmetry, fostering an environment where children’s perspectives were valued, and power imbalances were minimized. As researchers with knowledge of education and the realities of Portuguese schools, we remained attentive to the specific needs of each context, adapting our methods accordingly. Our positionality as researchers—both in terms of our academic backgrounds and familiarity with the Portuguese educational context—shaped our interactions with the participants and the interpretative lens through which we analyzed the data. To address potential biases, we engaged in ongoing reflexivity, critically interrogating our assumptions and preconceptions throughout the research process (Bourdieu, 1999). This was operationalized through systematic self-reflection in fieldwork journals, team discussions to examine alternative interpretations, and iterative engagement with the data to ensure that our analyses remained grounded in participants’ perspectives rather than researcher-imposed narratives. By adopting this approach, we sought to mitigate the risk of projecting our perspectives onto the data while maintaining a transparent and critically engaged analytical process. Finally, as we said before, we defend that children are social actors and, as such, construct gendered identities for themselves within a network of relations with peers and adults. It is necessary to explain that the chosen excerpts are more than examples that serve to corroborate the researcher’s unwarranted voices. Instead, their selection follows the theoretical-methodological and ethical principles. These excerpts reconstruct the discursive heterogeneity in the field, which considers the many subjective voices that exist and interact in the text, including the authors.

The Read-Aloud Program

The implementation of the reading-aloud intervention program comprised three phases: before the intervention, during the intervention, and after the intervention.

The period before the intervention involved observing the children in a formal learning situation or extracurricular activities, thus enabling a more in-depth knowledge of their characteristics and how they related to each other and the world. This knowledge was essential for the first selection of books and themes to explore with the children, assuming they would have commonalities with their experiences. In the process of picture book selection, the children selected the books to read aloud from a wide range of books presented to them. All the books offered to the children met the quality criteria of postmodern picture books (Ciecierski et al., 2017; Ramos, 2020; O’Neil, 2010). Purposeful selection of books can help teachers address controversial issues and challenge stereotypical narratives in social studies, fostering deeper discussions on topics such as gender (Tschida & Buchanan, 2017).

During the intervention program, 20 books were read aloud to the children in 16 sessions, lasting approximately one hour per session. These books addressed issues related to diversity and participation, as mentioned above. This article presents the results of only seven books explicitly addressing gender issues (Table 2).

At each session, the researcher and the children sat in a circle on the floor. Initially, the researcher began by presenting two or three books on the theme, reading the title, and showing the cover. Together, they selected a book to read and discuss during the session. However, all the books were available for the children to read and/or explore later. Each child’s participation in each session was voluntary, and they could leave anytime. As a rule, the children were encouraged to carry out activities related to the books they had read, such as drawing pictures or writing something about what they had read in their diaries.

Read-aloud moments are essential tools for introducing new content, “such as gender stereotypes and inequities, as they provide visual and auditory information, increase reading comprehension and subject area knowledge, and allow teachers to identify and correct misperceptions throughout the text” (Whitford, 2023, p. 274). They also favor developing critical literacy and exploring stereotypes and controversial issues. In addition, there are moments of interaction marked by a strong pedagogical intent centered on a specific topic, providing opportunities to become aware of inequalities and to reflect on how to contribute to reversing them.

After the intervention, focus groups were held, lasting between 15 and 25 min, and it was intended that the children would be able to share their views, feelings, and emotions about the content explored in the books. The questions asked were also aimed at exploring the similarities and differences between the children and the characters in the stories and the connection they made with the world and their reality from a more microperspective. It was a moment that allowed the children to put themselves in the place of the Other (Gonçalves et al., 2024), thus favoring discussion of social justice issues and, in the case of this study, gender issues.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. What Children Say About Gender: The Family

Reading postmodern books plays a crucial role in shaping children’s understanding of gender diversity and social norms. The Book of Pedro begins with the presentation of a family reality that challenges traditional norms/heteronormativity. The book starts with, “These are my two dads, Pedro and Paulo. I moved in with them when I was tiny. I do not remember, but they told me”. Inês’s surprise and confusion when encountering the notion of two dads prompted the researcher’s response: “There are children who have two dads or two mums”. This initial resistance is subsequently countered by other participants in the discussion, notably João, who articulates a recognition of diversity by asserting that “there is no problem” with the existence of two married men. This exchange highlights the children’s varying recognition and understanding of non-traditional family structures.

The book Titiritesa, which is a story that deals with female homosexuality with humor and naturalness and celebrates love without prejudice, ensuring the necessary sensitivity for child readers, was also a book of choice for some of the children in the group when they were asked to name some of the books they had enjoyed the most. However, it is worth mentioning how naturally the children seemed to accept homosexual relationships, with the queen mother’s overreaction being the strangest. The children’s curiosity centered on marriage between two people of the same sex, thus demonstrating levels of acceptance and normality regarding homosexual marriage. In other studies, while some findings highlighted children tended to value traditionally masculine narratives more and disregard those centered on traditionally feminine values (Earles, 2017), others found that boys were more receptive to counter-stereotypical male role models (Whitford, 2023; Kneeskern & Reeder, 2020). This suggests that exposure to diverse narratives can effectively broaden children’s perceptions of gender roles, particularly among boys.

4.2. What Children Say About Gender: Boy Is a Boy, and Girl Is a Girl … or Is It?

The recognition of non-conventional forms of gender is visible in the book Jaime is a Mermaid. This book addresses individuality, gender identity, acceptance, and family relationships. The children show openness to non-normative expression, reflected in their acceptance of using dresses and playing with curtains. Gabriel considers the idea “creative and excellent”, while Rafael and other peers highlight the attractiveness of mermaids. This acceptance reveals a growing flexibility concerning traditional gender norms and individual expression, thus challenging societal expectations.

The book A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo is particularly relevant to discuss diversity and inclusion. João Pereira’s reaction to commenting on the wedding ceremony between (male) rabbits highlights an acceptance of inclusive norms, reflecting a recognition that “we can marry whomever we want” and that “freedom is not his, it is ours”. However, the beginning of the reading reveals a lack of familiarity with non-traditional representations, indicating a need for greater exposure and education regarding gender diversity. The researcher’s intervention, which questions the dynamics of the story, prompts significant reflection among the children. João’s assertion that “that is not right because we have to marry whomever we want” demonstrates a natural and unquestioning acceptance of each person’s individual choices while respecting their individuality and personal freedom.

When the researcher asks “What was your favorite book?”, Clara responds: “My favorite book you brought was Marlon Bundo’s A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo”. The researcher asks “Why?”, Clara replies: “Because it does not matter how people are; we are all the same on the inside”. This statement reveals an emerging understanding of equity, regardless of diversity in identity or orientation, highlighting children’s capacity to articulate social justice concepts. As previous studies have also demonstrated (Sandretto, 2018), in our study, when children are exposed to counter-stereotypical texts or are led to discuss complex issues from a critical perspective, they are led to actively engage in analyzing and deconstructing deep-rooted gender stereotypes, questioning and refuting these assumptions. In other words, critical literacy practices lead children to expand how they construct their notions of gender, focusing on multiple ways of knowing and being. The Drag Queen Story Hour initiative (Keenan & Hot Mess, 2020) illustrates how literacy practices can dismantle traditional gender binaries through interactive storytelling and creative activities. When consistently applied, these methods have significant potential to challenge and reshape children’s understanding of gender roles, promoting equity and inclusiveness in both educational settings and society.

4.3. Gendering of Colours and Professions

Olívia and Gabriel talk and show a growing understanding of diversity as a part of life. Olívia states, “The dresses were for everyone”. At the same time, Gabriel concludes that “people can be beautiful”, emphasizing the internalization of ideas that traditional gender norms should not restrict personal expression and identity.

As Olívia browses through the book Tiago’s Dresses, she highlights a passage where Tiago’s grandmother mentions the following: “Some people think there are things that only boys can wear and others that are for girls, and that the two cannot mix”. This observation is crucial, as it reveals the children’s resistance to accepting rigid and binary categorizations based on gender. “Here it says that people think boys should wear blue and girls should wear pink, but I do not like pink!”, Olívia states, showing a refusal to conform to normative expectations.

Also, in a study, Evelyn, age 7, referred to the following: “Because they say that girls must dress like this because you are girls, and boys must do boy things, but there is no such thing as boy things. Now I am going to scream because it is so crazy!” (Whitford, 2023, p. 264), reinforcing children’s resistance from an early age to binary categories mainly imposed by society. Despite different contexts, the similarities between the data obtained in another study and ours are relevant when the children empathize with the characters who defied stereotypical norms. “Students overwhelmingly reported feeling sad when the characters experienced bias. Answers such as “I felt bad but then happy … Sad because you should not even be stereotyped over a dress, then happy because eventually, they learned that it is okay [for a boy to wear a dress]” were common (Whitford, 2023, p. 279).

The conversation continues with Gabriel, who mentions that “men build [work in construction], but women can build too”, reinforcing that abilities are not limited by gender. When asked about the central message of the book, Gabriel replies, “People can do everything, not just men and women, but children too… and this book is very creative”. This final statement encapsulates the message of freedom and creativity that permeates the discussions about gender diversity among children, underscoring the importance of fostering an educational environment that promotes acceptance and celebration of diversity.

Reading We All Do Everything deconstructs gender stereotypes associated with professions. Inês’s statement, “Only my dad knows how to fish”, is countered by Gabriel’s questioning of gender limitations in construction when he concludes that “people can do everything, not just men and women, but children as well”. This reflection reveals a significant advancement in understanding that professions and capabilities are not inherently linked to gender, demonstrating a movement towards greater equality and flexibility of roles. Interestingly, the findings of our study do not align with previous research indicating that gender stereotypes remain prevalent in professional perceptions (Whitford, 2023; Solbes-Canales et al., 2020). Traditionally male-dominated professions, like police officers and ship captains, are still seen as male roles by many participants, with girls showing slightly greater rigidity in gender categorization than boys (Solbes-Canales et al., 2020).

Other studies carried out using read-aloud texts, counter-stereotypical guest speakers, and artistic interventions during which students drew men and women in non-stereotypical professions (Karniol & Gal-Disegni, 2009; Sandretto, 2018) showed that, at the end of these interventions, children were more likely to classify professions as acceptable for both men and women.

The results further emphasize that exposing children to counter-stereotypical role models helps challenge rigid gender perceptions, promoting a more flexible view of career roles and contributing to reducing the gender gap in traditionally male-dominated fields (Whitford, 2023; Olsson & Martiny, 2018).

5. Conclusions

The analysis of the data suggests that, while some children demonstrate in multiple harmonies, dissonances, and silences an increasing recognition and understanding of gender diversity, others still hold a more heteronormativity perspective. This contrast illustrates the dynamics of social constructions and ongoing negotiations surrounding gender issues. Gender differences and inequalities are (re)constructed and negotiated in daily interactions (Ferreira & Tomás, 2022). Analyzing the data collected by observing the read-aloud and conducting focus groups with children, focusing on understanding and recognizing gender diversity, reveals, on the one hand, diversity in the way children confront gender issues. These diverse positions were sometimes articulated explicitly through verbal statements, while at other times they emerged in the form of silences or hesitations. In some cases, children challenge one another’s perspectives, leading to moments of negotiation and redefinition of meanings within the focus group. These findings underscore the complexity of children’s perspectives, illustrating how masculinities and femininities are negotiated through interaction, including processes of negotiation, acceptance, policing, and exclusion both between and within gender groups (Ferreira, 2002; Pereira, 2012; Ferreira & Tomás, 2022).

One of the key findings underscores the influence of narrative representation in shaping children’s perceptions of gender. Postmodern picture books, characterized by their subversion of traditional story structures and their inclusion of diverse characters, provide opportunities for children to encounter alternative gender roles and identities. These narratives disrupt normative assumptions and invite children to question stereotypes, fostering greater openness to diversity and equity. This finding is consistent with previous research, which emphasizes the importance of literature as a tool for challenging bias and promoting critical thinking. However, it also raises the question of how accessible such books are in mainstream educational contexts and whether their transformative potential is being fully employed. To respond to this obstacle, it would be desirable for these books to be included in school libraries and for teachers to be offered training in different ways of exploring these books. In the case of this participating school, the research team offered 15 books, which were available in the children’s classrooms.

Another result concerns children’s agency and participation in discussions about gender. The study found that, when given the opportunity, children demonstrate a remarkable capacity to engage critically with concepts of gender and diversity. Their reflections on characters and narratives often reveal sophisticated understandings of fairness, equality, and inclusion. Gender is present in various forms in children’s interactions and shows the challenge of gender stereotypes by other children. This underscores the importance of creating dialogic spaces in educational settings where children can voice their perspectives and actively contribute to meaning-making. By positioning children as co-constructors of knowledge rather than passive recipients, educators can foster a deeper engagement with gender equity issues. Educational strategies that integrate discussions on gender, diverse books, open discussions, and inclusive role models have proven effective in fostering inclusive environments. Co-planning lessons with diverse gender representations have also contributed to creating a safer and more supportive classroom atmosphere (Falkner & Clark, 2018).

The study also highlights the role of adults as mediators of gender discourse in the classroom. While some educators skillfully used picture books to provoke critical discussions and encourage diverse viewpoints, others inadvertently reinforced traditional gender norms through their interpretations or classroom practices. The interactions between the children and the researcher’s mediation highlight the complexity of children’s understanding of family diversity and persisting barriers. To work on developing children’s critical thinking and exploring social justice through postmodern picture books, it is necessary to offer training for teachers in different ways of exploring these books. It is also important to consider training teachers to prepare them for the inclusion and discussion of these themes in their classrooms with their groups of children, regardless of social background or level of education, because not all teachers feel comfortable exploring these topics with children (Wild, 2023; Kotler et al., 2019; Sullivan et al., 2021). Finally, fostering gender equity in early education is not just about transforming classroom practices but about contributing to a more substantial societal shift towards social justice, rights, and inclusion. By centering children’s voices, promoting critical literacy, and equipping educators with the necessary tools, education can play a crucial role in dismantling (gender) inequalities and shaping a future where every child can fully participate and prosper. These findings indicate that embedding a care perspective further strengthens the recognition of children’s lived experiences and enriches educational practices by fostering inclusiveness and deeper understanding.

This study has the limitation of having worked with a small group of children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and public schools. In the future, it would be important to conduct longitudinal studies to assess the long-term impact of this type of intervention and the introduction of these themes from an early age, across different cultural contexts and with a broader group of participants.