History Repeats, We Forget: Short Memories When It Comes to K-12 Distance Learning

Abstract

In this article, the authors examine the history, development, and current state of K-12 online learning, challenging the assertions that COVID-19-era distance education was unprecedented. Drawing on historical examples, the authors demonstrate how educational systems have repeatedly leveraged various technologies for remote instruction during disruptions, from correspondence courses to radio broadcasts to modern digital platforms. The analysis reveals persistent challenges in implementing effective online learning, including inadequate teacher preparation, inconsistent terminology, and limited theoretical frameworks. While K-12 online learning has shown promise for expanding educational access and flexibility, adoption remains relatively low globally. The article concludes that realizing the potential of K-12 online learning requires addressing fundamental issues in research, practice, and policy while learning from past experiences rather than treating each implementation as novel.

1. Introduction

“The COVID-19 pandemic forced K-12 school closures in spring 2020 to protect the well-being of society. The unplanned and unprecedented disruption to education changed the work of many teachers suddenly, and in many aspects” (emphasis added—para. 1), is how Kaden (2020) described the pivot to remote learning. Similarly, Dibner et al. (2020) stated that “The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has presented unprecedented challenges to the nation’s kindergarten-grade 12 education system” (emphasis added—p. 833). Further, Wharton-Beck et al. (2024) suggested that “the 2020 global pandemic ushered in an unparalleled call to dramatically shift the focus of how school administrators responded to the COVID-19 pandemic” (emphasis added—p. 21). However, was the closure of schools and the desire to provide some measure of continuity of learning really unplanned, unprecedented, and unparalleled?

Just borrowing from the lead author’s own experiences, his niece was a high school student in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador during the 2019–20 school year. Approximately six weeks before COVID-19 shut down schools worldwide, the province’s capital region experienced a record-setting 76.2 cm of snow in one day (Erdman, 2020). It took almost two weeks before the streets were cleared, which resulted in schools being closed for 10 days, and the system was not prepared to provide any type of continuity of learning for her even though the province had a robust virtual school for over 15 years (CBC News, 2020). A decade earlier, he was based in Christchurch, New Zealand, during a three-month sabbatical. He arrived in the city in late February 2011, only three weeks after the second of two major earthquakes in the span of six months had resulted in all of the schools in Christchurch being closed, and would eventually lead to the “red stickering” (i.e., a determination the building could not be used) of about half of the city’s schools and the “double bunking” (i.e., one group of students using the school for the first half of the day, and completely different group of students using the school during the second half of the day) of the schools that could remain open. At the same time he was conducting a national study on the future of virtual and distance learning in the country, Mackey et al. (2012) were describing the various levels of success (or lack thereof) in addressing “the immediate post-earthquake challenges of redesigning courses using different blends of face-to-face and online activities to meet the needs of on-campus, regional campus, and distance pre-service teacher education students” (p. 122).

Finally, almost a decade before his time in New Zealand, an outbreak of SARS 2003 closed several schools in the Toronto District School Board (i.e., Canada’s largest jurisdiction). Even though school districts throughout Ontario had been experimenting with online learning since the mid-1990s, Borja (2003) reported that the “district didn’t implement a full-scale virtual-learning program. But they did gather online learning links from the Canadian Ministry of Education on the district’s website for access to material supplementing students’ classwork” (para. 15). While we acknowledge that the lead author’s research interests have focused on K-12 distance, online, and blended learning since the late 1990s, it seems more than a coincidence that he can quickly point to three personal examples of times when schools were closed due to extreme weather, a natural disaster, or a global pandemic—and the K-12 school system was not prepared to provide students with any continuity of learning (and any lessons learned from these experiences were forgotten by 2020).

In this article, we begin by briefly describing how distance learning has been used during various crises throughout history; however, despite this long history, many educational systems were still unprepared for COVID-19 and continued to struggle with implementing effective remote learning during emergency school closures. Next, we highlight some of the lessons that have been learned from the practice and scholarship over the 25-year evolution of K-12 online learning in the United States. We transition to outlining some of the unrealized potential of K-12 online learning to transform learning. Finally, we explore five major challenges holding back K-12 online learning scholarship that need to be addressed before the field can move from theoretical potential to practical success.

This analysis contributes to the field in several significant ways. First, by contextualizing current K-12 online learning practices within their historical precedents, we challenge the persistent narrative that each educational disruption represents an unprecedented crisis requiring novel solutions. Second, we systematically identify five critical challenges currently hampering K-12 online learning scholarship that must be addressed before theoretical potential can be translated into practical success. Third, we highlight the disconnect between the theoretical promises of K-12 online learning and its practical implementation, particularly during emergency situations. Through this historical and critical perspective, we aim to break the cycle of collective forgetting in educational practice that has characterized responses to disruptions throughout the past century.

2. Continuity of Learning Prior to and Since COVID-19

The reality is that the implementation of K-12 distance and online learning predates the COVID-19 pandemic by several decades (if you include more traditional modalities of distance learning by over a century in many jurisdictions), and—ironically—we have documented instances of it being used as an alternative instructional delivery method to address various disruptions to traditional educational environments (Barbour, 2022). Historically, educational continuity has been facilitated through technological innovations ranging from correspondence education and educational radio to more sophisticated online platforms. The scholarly literature reveals multiple contexts in which virtual learning has been strategically employed to maintain educational access. For example, McCracken (2020) wrote about high school students in Long Beach, California using the telephone to access instruction during the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918–19. Another American example from 1937 was a polio outbreak in the Chicago area that forced “325,000 elementary school children [to] tune in daily to follow lessons broadcast by six cooperating radio stations” (Tang, 2021, para. 2). Similarly, German (2020) recounted how the New Zealand Correspondence School sent lesson packages to every household and the Government broadcast lessons on public radio stations during the polio epidemic in 1948. The more recent literature has numerous examples of how a variety of Asian nations have used online learning as a means to provide continuity of learning for students during the SARS and H1N1 pandemics (Alpert, 2011; Barbour et al., 2011; Latchem & Jung, 2009).

Despite these historical precedents, the global educational community remained surprisingly unprepared for the widespread school closures in March 2020 (Babbar & Gupta, 2022; Horváth et al., 2022; McCarthy, 2020; Prihartono et al., 2024). In many cases where lack of preparation continues, at the same time there is an increase in the number of school closures. For example, flooding in New Zealand in 2023 or in Spain in 2024 (Candela, 2024; McClure, 2023), extreme heat in Greece in 2024 (BBC, 2024), wildfires in Indonesia in 2023 or Canada in 2024 (Anchan, 2024; Jacobson, 2023) are all examples of unexpected school closures that have made national or international news just in the past two years. Even quite unexpected, but extended school closures due to the use of faulty construction materials or bathroom toilets backing up have been reported in the United Kingdom (Banfield-Nwachi, 2023; Lawson, 2024). Many of these examples report how the situations have “left teachers scrambling to find temporary accommodation and forced many students to begin their school year remotely” (Al Jazeera, 2023, para. 2), or how “schools are relying on online classes when communities face their most trying times—disasters like wildfires, storms or a lack of water. And experts say it’s not a sustainable solution” (Schultz, 2022, para. 4). Simply put, while both popular media and scholars have noted that numerous instances demonstrated the potential and necessity of distance learning, systematic implementation and comprehensive preparedness were often lacking.

The literature consistently emphasizes the need for comprehensive planning encompassing technological infrastructure, device accessibility, teacher training, and pedagogical adaptability. These considerations extend beyond mere technological solutions, requiring holistic approaches to maintaining educational continuity during unexpected disruptions. As Rush et al. (2016) described it, schools must be ready to “sustain school operations when a disaster makes school buildings inaccessible or inoperable for an extended period of time” (p. 188) and included a list of issues that needed to be planned for; from connectivity to device distribution, to teacher preparation to instructional modalities, and content creation and/or curation—to name a few. Despite the challenging nature of these key priorities, educators and researchers can utilize years of accumulated K-12 online learning knowledge.

3. Lessons from a Quarter Century of K-12 Online Learning

The history of K-12 distance learning can be traced back over a hundred years in several countries (Barbour, 2014; T. Clark, 2003; Rumble, 1989; Stevens, 1994). In many of these jurisdictions, the medium has changed from correspondence to educational radio to instructional television to telematics to online learning (Barbour, 2018a; M. G. Moore & Kearsley, 2011; Stacey & Visser, 2005). However, as Barbour and Hodges (2024) reminded us, “there were a small number of jurisdictions… where K-12 online learning was prevalent. However, even in countries where K-12 online learning was common, it often only touched 5% to 10% of the overall K-12 student population” (p. 584). One jurisdiction that has seen some activity and, more importantly, has dominated the research literature has been the United States (Barbour, 2020), which begs the question what can be learned from the practice and research into K-12 online learning in the United States over the past 25–30 years?

The origins of K-12 online learning can be traced to pioneering efforts like the Florida Virtual School, established in 1997, which became a national model for state-sponsored online education (Barbour, 2018d). In its early years, this program primarily served students in rural areas of Florida who lacked access to specialized courses or faced geographical barriers to traditional schooling. For instance, students in remote panhandle communities could now take advanced placement courses or specialized language classes that were previously unavailable in their local schools (Johnston & Barbour, 2013). These initial attempts at K-12 online learning often resembled little more than digitized textbooks with static content, which proved monumentally ineffective. R. C. Clark et al. (2009) documented that early K-12 online learning initiatives frequently failed to differentiate between traditional instructional materials and digital content, resulting in passive learning experiences with minimal student engagement. Similarly, Barbour and Reeves (2009) indicated that many early virtual school programs simply transferred existing print materials to digital formats without considering the unique interactive potential of online environments. Further, a comprehensive study of early K-12 online learning initiatives revealed that many programs in the early 2000s relied heavily on text-based content with minimal multimedia integration or interactive elements (Rice, 2006). These early implementations typically featured static web pages, downloadable documents, and linear content presentation that did not leverage the dynamic capabilities of digital learning platforms. These early failures demonstrated that effective virtual education requires intentional pedagogical design that accounts for the unique characteristics of digital learning environments. Based on these early experiences, Means et al. (2013) emphasized the critical need for purposeful course design that goes beyond simple content transfer, highlighting the importance of creating interactive, adaptive learning experiences that engage students actively in the educational process.

In much of the same way that the provision of K-12 online course content has affordances that the face-to-face environment cannot provide, K-12 online teaching is different than classroom-based teaching. The transition from face-to-face to online teaching in K-12 education requires significant adaptations in instructional practices, student engagement strategies, and technological integration. Online teaching demands distinct pedagogical approaches and well-structured course design to ensure clarity and accessibility (Johnson et al., 2022; Pulham & Graham, 2018). While face-to-face teaching is comfortable and facilitates direct interaction between students and teachers in familiar ways, online environments present unique challenges in maintaining student engagement, requiring educators to develop creative and flexible approaches to foster a supportive learning environment (Kiekel et al., 2019; Johnson et al., 2022). Students in online settings must develop stronger self-regulation skills to manage their learning independently compared to traditional classroom settings (Johnson et al., 2022).

The successful implementation of online teaching heavily depends on technology access and proficiency for both educators and students, particularly in using learning management systems and communication tools (Pulham & Graham, 2018). This technological foundation requires not just physical access to devices and reliable access to the internet, but also comprehensive training and ongoing support to ensure effective use of digital resources. Notably, blended learning models that combine online and face-to-face instruction have demonstrated particular effectiveness, often surpassing purely traditional settings due to enhanced resources and interaction opportunities (Means et al., 2013). These hybrid approaches allow educators to leverage the strengths of both modalities, creating flexible learning environments that can accommodate diverse student needs while maintaining the benefits of in-person interaction.

Professional development and teacher preparation emerge as crucial factors in successful online teaching implementation. Many educators express concerns about transitioning to online teaching, highlighting the need for targeted professional development to build necessary skills and confidence (Rakes & Dunn, 2015; Dikkers, 2015). Interestingly, experience in online teaching can positively influence traditional classroom practices, as teachers incorporate new technologies and pedagogical strategies learned from online environments into their face-to-face instruction (Dikkers, 2015). While both online and face-to-face teaching share similar educational goals, they require distinct competencies and adaptations to ensure effective learning outcomes, with blended models often providing an optimal combination of both approaches’ strengths.

Another difference between online and face-to-face teaching is that in a traditional classroom the teacher designs, delivers, and supports the instruction. However, in the K-12 online environment, the individual who designs the online course is often not be the individual who actually teaches the course, and there are usually one or more individuals at the local school level who support the student while they are engaged in their online learning. Essentially, the role of the teacher in the K-12 online environment can become diffused much more easily than in the classroom setting. This division of teaching responsibilities in online education reflects what Davis (2007) termed the three distinct roles: virtual school designer, virtual schoolteacher, and virtual school site facilitator (i.e., with “virtual school” being the term used to describe K-12 online learning at the time). Research suggests this separation can create unique challenges around coordination and workload. For instance, when virtual schoolteachers must also serve as course designers, they often struggle to develop more than “a unit or two of online course materials before the students begin their online course” (Barbour & Adelstein, 2013, p. 6), forcing them to create content just barely ahead of student progress throughout the term. The implications of this diffused responsibility structure extend to issues of content ownership and quality—virtual schoolteachers typically lack formal training in instructional design, with Rice and Dawley (2007) finding that over 31% of teachers reported receiving no training in online lesson design. This skills gap, combined with time constraints, often results in “online curricular materials are often of lesser quality and fail to take advantage of all of the tools available to them in the online environment” (Barbour & Adelstein, 2013, p. 8). The separation of roles thus introduces complexities around coordination, workload management, and instructional quality that are largely absent in traditional classroom settings where a single teacher handles all aspects of instruction.

While these distinctions exist between how classroom and online instruction is designed, delivered, and supported, at present, teacher education does not prepare pre-service or in-service teachers to teach in a K-12 online environment. Despite the increasing prevalence of online and blended learning, many teacher education programs have not yet integrated the necessary coursework and practical experiences to equip future educators with the skills required for these modalities (Hodges et al., 2022). This gap in preparation leaves teachers unprepared to effectively navigate the unique challenges of online instruction, which differs significantly from traditional classroom teaching in terms of pedagogy, technology use, and student engagement strategies (Barbour & Hodges, 2024). To address these deficiencies, Hodges et al. (2022) propose a vision for the near future that includes six key objectives aimed at integrating online and blended learning preparation into teacher education. These objectives encompass the inclusion of sufficient coursework, providing pre-service teachers with experiences as online learners, incorporating field experiences in online and blended learning, developing metrics and instruments to assess pre-service teachers’ readiness for online teaching, creating validated, research-based standards for online and blended learning, and requiring accrediting bodies to mandate online and blended learning preparation for all pre-service teachers.

Even though teachers are ill-prepared to undertake K-12 online learning, it is important to note that all students can learn online when designed, delivered, and supported appropriately. However, similar to the classroom environment, most existing K-12 online learning is designed to target specific types of learners. Despite claims of personalization and individualization, the largest full-time virtual school providers attempt to be all things to all people through a standardized approach that fails to effectively serve most students. K12 Inc. operates 73 full-time virtual schools enrolling 88,329 students—representing 29.7% of all virtual school students (Molnar et al., 2019). This standardized model has led to consistently poor academic outcomes—virtual school students experience the equivalent of 180 fewer days of learning in math and 72 fewer days in reading compared to traditional school peers (CREDO, 2015). The problem is compounded by extremely high student-to-teacher ratios, with K12 Inc.’s internal documents showing that ratios could range from 60:1 to 72:1 at elementary/middle school levels and 225:1 to 275:1 at the high school level (Molnar et al., 2019). Rather than truly personalizing education, the dominant virtual school model appears to primarily serve students who are already well-suited to independent learning with limited teacher interaction.

A recently proposed, but useful way to consider the provision of K-12 online learning to ensure that all students have the opportunity to succeed is the Academic Communities of Engagement (ACE) framework (Borup et al., 2020). One of the strengths of the ACE framework is that it recognizes that young and adolescent students often lack the self-regulation and self-efficacy traditionally assumed with adult learners (Borup et al., 2014). The framework conceptualizes student engagement through three interconnected perspectives: outcomes, indicators, and facilitators. Engagement indicators include affective (i.e., emotional), behavioral (i.e., physical), and cognitive (i.e., mental) dimensions, which can vary significantly for individual students. For example, a student might be emotionally motivated to learn but struggle with self-regulation or understanding basic course concepts. The framework emphasizes that learning is fundamentally a social process, drawing on Vygotsky’s (1962, 1978) concept of the zone of proximal development. This means students require support from more knowledgeable individuals within both their course community (e.g., instructors, peers, support staff) and personal community (e.g., family, friends, local resources). By recognizing that students have varying levels of independent engagement, as such the ACE framework envisions support from both the course community (i.e., those directly or indirectly involved with the provision of the online learning) and the personal community (i.e., the student’s family and friends). Essentially, the ACE framework provides a nuanced approach to understanding and enhancing online learning experiences for K-12 students, moving beyond the simplistic assumption that all online learners are self-directed and technologically proficient.

4. Emerging Opportunities Within K-12 Online Learning

Interestingly, while the actual lessons from the practice of K-12 online learning over the past quarter century are limited, the perceived potential of K-12 online learning to transform educational delivery has been rampant. To start, many have argued that K-12 online learning represents a significant departure from the traditional, uniform classroom model by offering unprecedented pedagogical flexibility (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). Unlike conventional frameworks that mandate synchronous learning experiences, K-12 online learning readily enables (some would even say the dominant model encourages) students to engage with learning content through asynchronous modalities, accommodating diverse learning preferences, cognitive processing speeds, and individual temporal preferences (Picciano & Seaman, 2009). Additionally, adaptive learning technologies inherent in many online learning platforms could leverage sophisticated algorithmic frameworks to dynamically adjust instructional content based on individual student performance (Baker, 2016). These learning management systems have the ability to identify areas of academic strength and potential learning challenges and provide targeted interventions and personalized learning pathways to ensure that each student receives a learning experience specifically targeted to unique needs. Moreover, learning management systems have the potential to facilitate differentiated instruction at an unprecedented scale (Tomlinson, 2014). Educators can simultaneously provide advanced learning modules for high-performing students while offering remedial support for those requiring additional instructional scaffolding. This granular approach to educational delivery mitigates the limitations of traditional classroom models, where instruction is typically designed to accommodate an idealized “average” student profile.

K-12 online learning also has the potential to fundamentally democratize educational access, particularly for students who may encounter systemic barriers in traditional educational environments. Students with physical disabilities, chronic medical conditions, or geographical constraints can now engage in comprehensive educational experiences without the logistical challenges associated with physical school attendance (Basham et al., 2015; Black et al., 2022). Additionally, rural and economically marginalized communities benefit substantially from virtual-learning infrastructures (Valentine et al., 2021). By transcending geographical limitations, these platforms provide students in remote or underserved regions access to high-quality educational resources that were historically unavailable. Furthermore, K-12 online learning can create inclusive spaces for neurodivergent students and those with specific learning differences (Lesoski, 2022). Customizable interface designs, adjustable learning paces, and multimodal content presentation enable more comprehensive educational engagement for students who might struggle in traditional classroom settings.

K-12 online learning also represents a potential transformative approach to educational economics, enabling institutions to dramatically reduce traditional infrastructure expenses while strategically reallocating financial resources to enhance pedagogical quality and technological capabilities. From a schools’ perspective, K-12 online learning can offer significant economic advantages (Rice & Skelcher, 2018). Traditional educational models require substantial physical infrastructure investments, including classroom maintenance, transportation logistics, and extensive physical resource acquisitions. K-12 online learning environments have the potential to substantially mitigate these expenditures by leveraging digital infrastructure and cloud-based educational technologies (Horn, 2013). Additionally, schools can optimize resource allocation, redirecting financial investments toward curriculum development, technological infrastructure, and specialized instructional support (Christensen et al., 2010). Finally, the scalability of K-12 online learning can potentially enable more efficient educational delivery, allowing institutions to serve larger student populations with comparable or reduced operational expenses.

Data-driven assessment and analytics in K-12 online learning platforms have the potential to revolutionize educational monitoring by providing teachers with sophisticated, real-time insights into student performance, enabling unprecedented levels of personalized and proactive instructional intervention. As Shute and Rahimi (2017) described, K-12 online learning platforms provide unprecedented opportunities for comprehensive, real-time student performance assessment. Advanced analytics capabilities enable continuous monitoring of student engagement, comprehension levels, and learning trajectory progression (Bienkowski et al., 2012). These data-driven insights facilitate a more nuanced understanding of individual and collective learning dynamics. Additionally, there is potential for teachers to leverage sophisticated dashboards presenting granular performance metrics, enabling more targeted instructional interventions (Paolucci et al., 2024). Predictive analytical models can identify potential academic challenges before they manifest substantively, allowing proactive educational support strategies. While there has been some initial exploration of this potential (see Hung et al., 2012, 2020; Rice & Hung, 2020; Rice & Hung, 2015), there is still much work to be done to better understand what the data can provide teachers, then training teachers to be able to access and use it effectively.

Finally, psychological and social–emotional learning dimensions in K-12 online learning platforms have the potential to challenge traditional assumptions by providing sophisticated, intentionally designed digital spaces that foster meaningful interpersonal connections and support nuanced social skill development for diverse student populations. Contrary to prevalent misconceptions, K-12 online learning platforms can effectively support social–emotional learning through intentionally designed collaborative experiences (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). Digital discussion forums, group project platforms, and synchronous interactive sessions create meaningful opportunities for student interaction and interpersonal skill development. These platforms can be particularly beneficial for students who might experience social anxiety or struggle with traditional classroom social dynamics (S. Moore & Barbour, 2023). Controlled, structured digital interactions provide safer, more manageable environments for social skill development and interpersonal engagement. The bottom line is that K-12 online learning does have the potential to represent a transformative educational paradigm with profound implications for educational delivery (M. G. Moore & Kearsley, 2011). By offering personalized, accessible, and technologically sophisticated learning experiences, these platforms demonstrate remarkable potential to revolutionize educational engagement.

5. Key Challenges Facing the Field of K-12 Online Learning

It is important to note that while the scholarly literature has provided some initial lessons, and there has indeed been much promise and potential touted, there are still a number of challenges with the scholarship related to K-12 online learning. Barbour (2020) outlined five specific areas where the research (and researcher) was immature as a field. The first challenge is actually something that is present in this article, as Barbour argued that the field of K-12 online learning suffers from a significant lack of consistent terminology. In this piece alone the field has been described as distance learning, online learning, virtual learning, digital learning, and virtual schooling. Saba (2013) commented that this challenge was not isolated to K-12 online learning, as he wrote the broader field of distance education experiences “the emergence of terms and phrases in the current literature that have received acceptance among different groups of practitioners, while they remain poorly defined, or undefined” (p. 49). However, as Januszewski and Molenda (2008) noted, well-established scholarly domains have clear, shared terminology, while less mature fields struggle with definitions. For instance, in a single issue of the Journal of Online Learning Research (i.e., the only English language journal that specifically focuses on the field of K-12 online and blended learning) that was guest edited by Lokey-Vega and Stephens (2019), articles used varying terms like “full-time virtual school”, “nonprofit online educational program”, and “accredited state-wide virtual school” without clear distinctions between these types of K-12 online learning providers. This terminological confusion is particularly problematic because it makes it difficult for policymakers, practitioners, and the public to understand the nuances of the field.

The second challenge is that the field of K-12 online learning suffers from a significant lack of historical understanding. As Ferdig and Kennedy (2014) observed, many researchers seem to believe that history begins when they become interested in the field or based on a change in technology. Earlier we mentioned the that the provision of K-12 distance learning has more than a century of history behind it; from correspondence education to educational radio, to instructional television to telematics/audiographics (T. Clark, 2013). However, most contemporary research begins its analysis much earlier—effectively erasing decades of valuable educational innovation. For example, in the first edition of the Handbook of Research on K-12 Online and Blended Learning, Lowes (2014) explored the different research methodologies utilized in the field to date. She began her exploration in 2000. In the second edition of the same handbook Lokey-Vega et al. (2018) examined the use of theory in research in the field—beginning their own analysis in 1997. Similarly, Arnesen et al.’s (2019) analysis of over 300 journal articles in the field began in 1994. Are there no lessons on how to design asynchronous online course content to be learned from the construction of correspondence education course packets? Is there nothing to be learned from the provision of educational radio or instructional television that could be applied to synchronous online learning? This historical shortsightedness is evident in the current academic research in the field.

The third challenge is the absence of construct validity within research in the field. Construct validity is “the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring” (Brown, 1996, p. 231), which is critically absent in K-12 online learning research. To date, there has been only a single systematic effort to create a validated instrument: the Educational Success Prediction Instrument (ESPRI) by Roblyer and colleagues (Roblyer, 2005, 2006; Roblyer & Davis, 2008; Roblyer et al., 2008; Roblyer & Marshall, 2002–2003). Further, the lack of validated instruments creates significant challenges for the field, and these instruments are often the basis for developing and/or measuring conceptual and theoretical frameworks. In fact, Lokey-Vega et al. (2018) found that only a small portion of scholarship in the field contained any theoretical references, and many of these were not genuine theoretical frameworks. Additionally, the only theoretical development specific to K-12 distance learning has been the ACE framework described above (Borup et al., 2014, 2020). As such, this absence of construct validity has led to what Barbour (2018b) describes as largely “atheoretical” scholarship.

The fourth challenge was described as the postmodern influence on the field. Barbour (2020) argued that this postmodernism was evident in two ways: fragmentation and a lack of a systems approach. The first three challenges are a good illustration of both of these schools of postmodernism. For example, an inability to develop commonly understood terminology and definitions has led to a situation where someone not heavily invested in the field of K-12 online learning would likely not understand that cyber schools and full-time virtual schools are usually the same entity—at least in the context of the United States. However, the fact that it would only take the reader less than 10 min to identify an example of research that uses either cyber school or full-time virtual school in a manner inconsistent with what we are envisioning is a further example of this fragmentation. Similarly, the reality that little research in the field has utilized frameworks of any kind is demonstrative of a deficiency of a systematic approach to guide scholarship.

The fifth and final challenge is field’s overwhelming focus on the United States. Multiple studies have demonstrated the geographic narrowness of K-12 online learning research. For example, in his analysis of major distance education journals, Barbour (2011) found that over half of the K-12-focused articles were based on the United States. Similarly, in their examination of the Journal of Online Learning Research, Hu et al. (2019) revealed over 90% of articles published had a geographic focus on the United States. Even the fact that the “lessons” drawn in this very article are taken solely from the practice and research in the United States underscore this challenge. However, we know that there is much K-12 distance learning occurring in other jurisdictions. For example, there have been case studies focused on K-12 online learning activity in Australia, Canada, Iceland, Israel, Nepal, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Turkey, and the United Kingdom (Barbour, 2018a, 2018c; Barbour & Kennedy, 2014; T. Clark & Barbour, 2015). Overall, in order for the field to transition from simple promise and potential to realized opportunity, it must develop consistent terminology, embrace a broader historical understanding, create validated research instruments, build theoretical frameworks, and adopt a more global perspective.

6. Summary

Almost 30 years ago, Todd Oppenheimer penned an article in The Atlantic Monthly that was entitled “The Computer Delusion”. He began the article by stating:

In 1922 Thomas Edison predicted that “the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our educational system and... in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbooks”. Twenty-three years later, in 1945, William Levenson, the director of the Cleveland public schools’ radio station, claimed that “the time may come when a portable radio receiver will be as common in the classroom as is the blackboard”. Forty years after that the noted psychologist B. F. Skinner, referring to the first days of his “teaching machines”, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, wrote, “I was soon saying that, with the help of teaching machines and programmed instruction, students could learn twice as much in the same time and with the same effort as in a standard classroom”. Ten years after Skinner’s recollections were published, President Bill Clinton campaigned for “a bridge to the twenty-first century... where computers are as much a part of the classroom as blackboards”. Clinton was not alone in his enthusiasm for a program estimated to cost somewhere between $40 billion and $100 billion over the next five years. Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, talking about computers to the Republican National Committee early this year, said, “We could do so much to make education available twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, that people could literally have a whole different attitude toward learning”.

(Oppenheimer, 1997, p. 45)

This article could have easily been written last week, but instead of citing former US President Clinton and former US Speaker Gingrich’s enthusiasm, it could have easily been replaced with Christensen et al.’s (2010) prediction that by the end of the decade all high school courses would be delivered online and that 50% of K-12 students would learn online.

As noted earlier, the reality is that with the exception of the disastrous deployment of remote learning during the pandemic, even the most active jurisdictions around the globe only have between 5% and 10% of students engaged in K-12 online learning. Furthermore, in many countries there is still very little, if any, K-12 distance and/or online learning activity at all. Thus, much of the promise, some may even say hype, around K-12 online learning remains simply that—a potential outcome that we have yet to see. However, even with the limited level of K-12 online learning activity, there have been some lessons from both research and practice that can help guide those who are interested in developing these flexible learning opportunities.

The current state of K-12 online learning may fall short of potentials identified years earlier, but the accumulated knowledge from decades of research and practice makes a hopeful future possible. The field has developed sophisticated frameworks, identified critical success factors for implementation, and demonstrated the potential for meaningful learning outcomes when proper supports and infrastructure are in place. Rather than viewing past challenges as limitations, they can serve as valuable example cases for building more effective online learning environments. As educational systems around the world continue to evolve and adapt to changing circumstances, the thoughtful integration of online learning—informed by evidence and experience—holds promise for enhancing educational opportunity, flexibility, and resilience in the years ahead.

This in-depth examination of the history and practice of K-12 online learning provides several key insights. First, by situating contemporary K-12 online learning practices within their historical context, we challenge the recurring belief that each educational disruption is an entirely new crisis demanding new solutions. Second, we systematically identify major obstacles that currently hinder K-12 online learning research. Third, we emphasize the gap between the theoretical advantages of K-12 online learning and its real-world application, especially in emergency contexts. Moving forward, the field must standardize terminology, develop a deeper historical awareness, create validated research tools, establish strong theoretical frameworks, and incorporate a more global perspective. By adopting this historical and critical lens, we aim to break the cycle of historical disconnection in educational practice that has shaped responses to disruptions over the past century. Only through recognizing and learning from past experiences can K-12 online learning achieve its full potential as a transformative force in education and a fundamental component of modern schooling.