Integrating Practice and Theory in Teacher Education: Enhancing Pre-Service Self-Efficacy for Inclusive Education

Abstract

Inclusive education demands that children worldwide have access to education alongside their peers in their neighborhood schools and within regular classrooms. Understanding experiences that contribute to pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy is important as it influences their readiness to enact inclusive strategies effectively. This study involved 69 pre-service teachers from Canadian faculties of education in mixed-methods research using Group Concept Mapping. The analysis identified five clusters of experiences; a repeated measures ANOVA revealed that ‘Applying Knowledge’ and ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ comprised the most important experiences for contributing to pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices, while ‘Community Support’ and ‘Experiences with Diverse Student Needs’ were significantly more important than ‘Professional Development’. By aligning these clusters with Bandura’s sources of self-efficacy, this study highlights the importance of mastery experiences and supportive interactions. These findings suggest that teacher education programs that focus on and enhance practical experiences and interpersonal supports will connect to and better prepare pre-service teachers for inclusive education.

1. Introduction

Inclusive education is a principled approach that meaningfully includes all students in classrooms within schools in their communities (Ainscow et al., 2012; Specht & Hutchinson, 2024). This approach has gained unified recognition in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) (1994) Salamanca Statement, which called for a global commitment to including students with disabilities in regular classrooms. Over the past 30 years since the Salamanca statement, inclusive change has remained a global priority, reflected in policy shifts and advocacy. Organizations such as the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (2024), Inclusive Education Canada (2023), and Inclusion International (2022) are some of the leading organizations advocating for inclusive education policies that ensure equitable access and full participation in mainstream education. Despite international commitments, the implementation of inclusive education remains inconsistent across education systems. Research highlights several systemic barriers, including insufficient pre-service teacher preparation, limited resources, and persistent deficit perspectives on disability (Ainscow et al., 2019; Forlin, 2006; Köpfer, 2021; Specht & Hutchinson, 2024). The International Handbook of Inclusive Education notes that many teacher education programs fail to fully integrate inclusive practices, thereby reinforcing traditional divisions between general and special education (Köpfer, 2021). Additionally, structural barriers within national education policies contribute to fragmented and inconsistent implementation of inclusion, as many systems continue to exhibit characteristics of segregated education for students with disabilities (Köpfer, 2021; Specht & Hutchinson, 2024).

This disconnect between policy and practice can be particularly evident in teacher education programs, where many pre-service teachers report feeling underprepared to implement inclusive strategies, even after completing coursework on inclusion (Sharma & Sokal, 2015; Sokal & Sharma, 2017). To address these challenges, Florian (2021) emphasizes the importance of bridging theoretical foundations with practical experience in inclusive pedagogy, ensuring that new teachers develop the confidence and the ability to implement inclusion effectively. Teacher education programs have an ethical responsibility to effectively prepare pre-service teachers for inclusive education, as an extensive research base affirms their foundational role in shaping teachers’ beliefs, confidence, and instructional effectiveness. For example, in a widely cited study on pre-service teacher efficacy, Woolfolk Hoy and Spero (2005) highlighted the importance of pre-service education in influencing teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy, while more recent research from Alsarawi and Sukonthaman (2023) demonstrates that pre-service teachers’ attitudes and knowledge about inclusion are strongly correlated with their ability to implement inclusive teaching strategies in diverse classrooms. Published nearly two decades apart, these studies reinforce the ongoing need for teacher education programs to provide both a strong theoretical foundation and meaningful, practical experiences to prepare beginning teachers for inclusive classrooms.

Self-efficacy is an individual’s perception of their ability to achieve desired outcomes (Bandura, 1997). In his seminal work, Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control, Bandura describes how self-efficacy influences the choices that individuals make, the effort they will invest in their endeavours, and their resilience in overcoming challenges. In an edited volume on teacher self-efficacy and inclusive education, Garvis and Pendergast (2016) highlight the importance of self-efficacy research in understanding how teachers’ beliefs shape their teaching behaviours, particularly for students with disabilities. Their volume examines how cultural and contextual factors shape self-efficacy, noting that while self-efficacy is a universal construct, its development at both the institutional and individual teacher levels varies across educational settings, including teacher education. For pre-service teachers, high self-efficacy is integral to their confidence and preparedness for teaching. Berg and Smith (2016) found that pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy is shaped early in their teacher education program and is often resistant to change, making these programs foundational to their future success as inclusive educators. Similarly, Sharma and George (2016) emphasize that teachers with higher self-efficacy for inclusion are more likely to engage in student-centred practices that support diverse learning needs, while those with lower self-efficacy may struggle to implement effective inclusive strategies.

There are four primary sources of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997): mastery experience is the most important, followed by vicarious experiences, then verbal persuasion, and finally physiological and affective states. Mastery experiences involve practices and reflection on tasks that provide authentic experiences to develop one’s ability and to feel successful. Vicarious experiences relate to learning alongside knowledgeable mentors. Verbal persuasion involves learning through encouragement and support from peers and colleagues. Physiological and affective states are associated with the emotional responses that are initiated through interactions one has in one’s learning environment.

1.1. Characteristics of Inclusive Pre-Service Teacher Self-Efficacy

A diverse range of factors influence the self-efficacy levels of pre-service teachers for teaching students with disabilities. Research from over the past decade has found that pre-service teachers entering teacher education programs tend to have higher levels of self-efficacy towards inclusive practices if they have grown up with someone close to them, such as siblings or peers with disabilities (e.g., Specht et al., 2015). The gender of pre-service teachers and the type of program pre-service teachers choose also appear to relate to higher levels of self-efficacy. For example, female elementary pre-service teachers have been shown to exhibit higher self-efficacy for inclusive teaching compared to their secondary elementary (particularly male) pre-service teacher peers (Gigante & Gilmore, 2020; Ismailos et al., 2022; Metsala & Harkins, 2020; Specht & Metsala, 2018). Interestingly, although female elementary pre-service teachers tend to enter their programs with higher self-efficacy than their male counterparts, these initial differences may not predict self-efficacy at the conclusion of their teacher education program (Charles et al., 2023). Taken together, these findings point to how initial characteristics such as gender and choice of teaching level influence self-efficacy and highlight the responsibility teacher education programs have in terms of levelling pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive teaching.

1.2. Practicum and the Role of Teacher Education

The influential components within teacher education programs for shaping pre-service teachers’ inclusive self-efficacy include practica and fieldwork. For example, Colson et al. (2017) found that pre-service teachers with longer practicum placements in high-risk school settings had a positive effect on their self-efficacy, and Charles et al. (2023) demonstrated that pre-service teachers with a practicum of 14 weeks or more demonstrated greater self-efficacy in their inclusive instruction, behaviour management and collaboration than their pre-service teachers in shorter practica. In addition to the importance of the longer practicum experience, Peebles and Mendaglio (2014) emphasize the positive benefit of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy through direct and indirect interactions with students with disabilities in practicum. Pre-service teachers’ inclusive self-efficacy increased significantly when they had opportunities to teach individual and small group instruction rather than just observe students with disabilities or teach in whole class settings. Peebles and Mendaglio (2014) illustrated that integrating coursework into fieldwork that is focused on inclusive teaching significantly boosted pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive classroom practices. Specht and Metsala (2018), contributing to this knowledge base by including more direct experiences with students with disabilities, found that increased exposure through tasks such as differentiating instruction and designing assessments for students with disabilities is associated with pre-service teachers’ higher self-efficacy levels for inclusive practices. Qualitative research from Young et al. (2018) reinforces the value of practicum in that it offers an opportunity for pre-service teachers to engage in collegial relationships with professional educators. Collectively, this evidence base supports the powerful role of practicum in the learning experiences pre-service teachers require to develop their self-efficacy for inclusive practices for their future classrooms.

Building upon this body of literature, our study sought to identify the specific experiences that shape pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive education. Unlike other studies that focus solely on either quantitative measures of self-efficacy (e.g., Loreman et al., 2007; Peebles & Mendaglio, 2014; Sharma & Sokal, 2015) or qualitative accounts of pre-service teachers’ inclusive efficacy (e.g., Young et al., 2018) our research applies a mixed-methods approach using Group Concept Mapping (GCM) which is explained further in the Results section. By understanding the experiences that contribute to pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy, our research hopes to contribute to narrowing the gap between policy aspirations and the practical implementation of inclusive practices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Ethics Board Approval

Research ethics approval was obtained from all 12 universities that participated in the research. Human participant protections were ensured for all involved.

2.2. Participants

This study involved two groups of participants. The first group consisted of 51 pre-service teachers from 12 English-language faculties of education across Canada, who were interviewed at the conclusion of their programs. These participants varied in ethnicity, with 82% identifying as White, 8% as East Asian, and the remainder distributed among Aboriginal, Chinese/German, Egyptian, and French-Canadian backgrounds. Comprising 42 women and 9 men, they had an average age of 32.04 years (SD = 6.24). Among them, 29 (57%) were interested in teaching at the kindergarten to grade 8 level, and 22 (43%) were focused on grades 9 to 12. The interview participants mirror the teaching workforce in Canada, who are largely white and female.

The second group, used for statement sorting based on the interviews of the first group, included 18 pre-service teachers nearing the end of their educational programs who were from the same population but not the same individuals as the first group. Group size is adequate based on Kane and Trochim (2007), who states that between 10 and 40 participants allow for a comprehensive range of perspectives. This group comprised 17 females and 1 male with an average age of 24.17 years (SD = 1.863). Their ethnicities were diverse, comprising 33% White, 17% Southeast Asian, 11% East Asian, 11% South Asian, and 28% from other backgrounds, including Aboriginal, mixed ethnicities, Latin American, and Central Asian. In total, 55% of the participants represented elementary pre-service teachers, and 45% were secondary cohorts. While the cultural identities are distributed differently than the interview participants, the main identity is white and female.

2.3. Procedure

Trochim’s (1989) Group Concept Mapping (GCM) approach framed the method and analysis of the present study. GCM positions the participant as central to the analysis process as they play a key role in defining the concepts through their stages of involvement (Kane & Trochim, 2007). The data collection and analysis procedure in this study borrows from Trochim’s (1989) key steps in the GCM process. The first steps relate to interviewing, transcription, statement creation, and participant sorting. The final steps relate to data analysis and the creation of computer-generated cluster maps.

2.3.1. Interviews

The pre-service teachers in group 1 were interviewed by phone. The interviews, lasting approximately 45 min, were guided by two broad questions:

• How confident do you feel in teaching in diverse classrooms? Has this increased, decreased, or remained the same over the last year?
• What has contributed to your level of confidence in teaching in diverse classrooms?

2.3.2. Transcription and Statement Creation

All the interviews were transcribed verbatim, and statements relevant to the study were extracted based on participants’ discussions about their confidence levels and experiences influencing their efficacy in diverse classrooms. Two researchers independently reviewed each transcription to identify pertinent statements. When there were multiple statements conveying the same idea using different wording, the most clear and concise version was retained. Seventy-six unique statements were generated. This amount is deemed to represent a comprehensive range of ideas while remaining manageable for participants to sort and rate for importance (Rosas & Kane, 2012).

2.3.3. Sorting and Rating

Eighteen participants sorted 76 unique statements into categories based on content similarities, with instructions to avoid grouping based on personal experience or subjective criteria such as agreement or relevance. For example, categories such as ‘things I agree with’, ‘things I have experienced’, and ‘not applicable to me’ were discouraged. We guided participants with analogies, suggesting they organize items as they would group an apple, a lime, a stop sign, and a green light—by color (red or green) or function (fruit versus traffic control items). Further, participants were also instructed not to combine all statements into a single category to ensure meaningful groupings. After sorting, participants rated the importance of each statement in relation to how influential they perceived they were in shaping teachers’ beliefs about inclusive classroom practices. The rating scale ranged from 1 (Not Important) to 6 (Very Important).

2.3.4. Cluster Map

Concept Systems® Group Wisdom™ (2019) software was used in the analysis of the data and creation of the computer-generated cluster map. The software’s analysis applies a process of multidimensional scaling using a binary matrix and statistical bridging indices for graphically depicting relationships amongst the rating of statements (Kane & Trochim, 2007). The purpose of multidimensional scaling is to transform similarity data into a visual representation of the relationships between items based on their relative distances. To achieve this, the software generates a binary matrix for each participant, with 1 indicating statements that were sorted together and 0 for those that were not (Dare & Nowicki, 2015). Following multidimensional scaling and the creation of binary matrices, the program creates statistical bridging indices that assess the coherence of sorted statements and are used to determine appropriate map configurations. This leads to the generation of cluster maps, and in our study, a five-cluster model was determined to be the most suitable. Based on participant ratings and sorting, the software program suggests labels for the clusters. To ensure labels accurately reflect the content of the cluster, the research team reviewed the statements in each computer-generated cluster and considered the suggested labels provided. Mirabal et al. (2024) highlight how redrawing clusters in group concept mapping is important for research teams to consider to ensure that the clusters are conceptually aligned with the research questions. Redrawing clusters involves realigning statements among clusters and refining cluster labels. To ensure that there is fidelity to the map’s overall structure, it is important to note that the stress value of the map remains unchanged (Rosas & Kane, 2012). However, bridging values of the redrawn clusters are recalculated (Mirabal et al., 2024). Bridging values range from 0–1, and the closer the rating is to 0, the more likely it is that these statements were sorted together.

3. Results

3.1. Clusters

To ensure that cluster maps are distinct and a good fit, a Kruskal’s stress value test is conducted. In our case, the five-cluster map generated a stress value of 0.271, which indicates a good fit for the data (Rosas & Kane, 2012).

In our analysis, the ‘Community Support’ cluster, initially labeled ‘Community Support/Involvement’, was renamed after relocating six statements to ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs’ to better align conceptually. ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs’, previously ‘Volunteer/Other Work Experience with Kids’, was refined to better reflect participants’ broader experiences with diversity. The labels for the remaining three clusters—‘Professional Development’, ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’, and ‘Application of Knowledge’—were retained as initially provided. The five clusters resulting from this process were: ‘Applying Knowledge’, ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’, ‘Community Support’, ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs’, and ‘Professional Development’ (See Figure 1). The next section presents the main findings for each cluster.

3.1.1. Cluster One: Applying Knowledge

‘Applying Knowledge’ has an average bridging value of 0.46, which indicates a good to moderate fit for the statements in this cluster (see

Table 1. Applying Knowledge: Concept Mapping Clusters, Statements, Importance Ratings, and Bridging Values.

Statement Number	Statement	Average Rating	Bridging Values
Cluster One	Applying Knowledge	5.15	0.46
8	Know the students and their interests	5.21	0.34
6	Using a tactic that works better for different kinds of learners	5.05	0.38
22	Experience in the classroom	5.42	0.43
1	Being in a classroom at practicum	5.53	0.45
65	Practical experiences at practicum	5.63	0.5
7	Range of placements with different financial and emotional needs	5.21	0.54
21	Taking the application of the theoretical background and seeing it into practice	4.0	0.57

). The statements with the highest mean ratings in this cluster represent how important practicum experiences are on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy of inclusive practices: Statement 65, “Practical experiences at practicum” (M = 5.63), statement 1, “Being in the classroom at practicum” (M = 5.53), and statement 22 “Experience in the classroom” (M = 5.42). Several statements provide details about the influence of applying knowledge in a setting where they have been able to learn about and know their students. Practicum offers experiences to “know students and their interests” (statement 8, M = 5.21) and to teach and learn in a “range of placements with different financial and emotional needs” (statement 7, M = 5.21). The lowest-rated statements in this cluster highlight the importance of bridging coursework within practicum experiences (see statements 6 and 21).

3.1.2. Cluster Two: Collaborating with Colleagues

The cluster ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ represents the types of interactions pre-service teachers have with their associate teachers and other educators during practicum. The bridging value of 0.42 indicates a good to moderate fit for the statements in this cluster (see

Table 2. Collaborating with Colleagues: Concept Mapping Clusters, Statements, Importance Ratings, and Bridging Values.

Cluster Two	Collaborating with Colleagues	4.88	0.42
61	Relationship with my associate teacher	5.21	0.33
63	Conversations with professionals in the school	4.68	0.35
70	Collaborating with teachers	4.95	0.35
45	Encouragement from colleagues	5.0	0.36
60	Brainstorming with my associate teachers	4.89	0.37
5	My associate teachers gave me reassurance that I was doing a good job	4.84	0.38
27	My practicum with the teacher teaching about inclusivity	4.95	0.39
59	Troubleshooting with the Special Education Resource Teacher	4.63	0.4
76	Tips from educational assistants	4.68	0.4
15	Placements with my associate teachers	5.05	0.4
62	Talking with the vice principal at my school	4.16	0.41
2	The associate teacher gave me quick feedback	5.16	0.44
33	Having support from teachers	5.37	0.44
35	Having support from associate teachers	5.47	0.46
3	Having great associate teachers	5.47	0.46
11	Seeing how my associate teacher creates lesson plans	3.84	0.49
55	Hearing from experienced teachers	4.95	0.51
14	Seeing other strategies that teachers have used	4.47	0.55

). While statements 3, 35 and 61 highlight the importance of supportive relationships with associate teachers, other statements in this cluster emphasize the value of feedback, modelling inclusive practices, and reassurance (see statements 2, 5, and 27). While less prominent, observing lesson planning (statement 11, M = 3.84) was also rated influential to pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. Statements in this cluster indicate that pre-service teachers value encouragement, collaboration, and exposure to various experienced staff in their practicum.

3.1.3. Cluster Three: Community Support

In the ‘Community Support’ cluster, a bridging value of 0.63 suggests moderate connectivity among its statements (see

Table 3. Community Support: Concept Mapping Clusters, Statements, Importance Ratings, and Bridging Values.

Cluster Three	Community Support	4.32	0.63
69	Contact with parents	4.47	0.37
73	Educational assistants	4.58	0.39
34	Having support from principals	5.26	0.43
26	Having a peer colleague	4.11	0.45
23	The administration	3.63	0.6
20	Asking questions	4.63	0.63
24	Going to the administration for assistance	3.47	0.69
58	Feeling like part of the community at school	4.84	0.7
36	Having support from parents	5.26	0.7
25	Going to the administration for resources	3.68	0.73
38	Meeting people	4.05	0.85
32	Community supports	3.89	1

). The bridging values within this cluster range from 0.37 to 1.0, which indicates that while the statements relate to each other, they also link to other clusters across the concept map. For instance, statements with low bridging values such as “Contact with parents” (statement 69, M = 4.47) and “Educational assistants” (statement 73, M = 4.58), are closely tied to the theme of community support, while statements like “Meeting people” (statement 38, M = 4.05) and “Community supports” (statement 32, M = 3.89), parent involvement (statement 36, M = 5.26) and feeling integrated into the school community (statement 58, M = 4.84) exhibit higher bridging values and indicate their relevance to multiple clusters (Kane & Trochim, 2007).

3.1.4. Cluster Four: Experience with Diverse Student Needs

The cluster ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs’ with a bridging value of 0.34 illustrates the importance of direct experiences in working with students who have diverse needs (see

Table 4. Experience with Diverse Student Needs: Concept Mapping Clusters, Statements, Importance Ratings, and Bridging Values.

Cluster Four	Experience with Diverse Student Needs	4.2	0.34
49	Volunteering with an organization that helps students with developmental disabilities	5.11	0.04
31	Volunteered to teach dancing in the high school	2.74	0.04
68	Working in the office for students with disabilities at university	4.05	0.05
67	I have experience working with young teenage populations	4.21	0.06
13	Coaching Special Olympics	3.42	0.07
12	Coaching skating	2.53	0.08
30	Teaching Greek school	2.32	0.11
51	Working as an EA	4.53	0.18
37	Working in Section 23 classroom	4.16	0.2
16	Working in different environments	5.21	0.31
64	Seeing progress and success in the students	5.68	0.32
40	Working with students with different and diverse needs	5.58	0.36
72	Trying these things and seeing what works and what does not work	5.32	0.38
71	Being in an inclusive classroom	5.53	0.43
57	My previous career	3.16	0.43
29	Community involvement	4.32	0.48
18	Life experience	4.11	0.74
17	Being a parent	3.0	0.78
4	I could calm down a student	4.84	0.83
66	I am a diverse learner	4.11	0.92

). This is evidenced by the three highest-rated statements in this cluster: “Seeing progress and successes in the students” (statement 64, M = 5.68), “Working with students with different and diverse needs” (statement 40, M = 5.58), and “Being in an inclusive classroom” (statement 71, M = 5.53). The statements in this cluster communicate that firsthand experiences in diverse classrooms provide pre-service teachers valuable opportunities to learn through experimentation, trial, and error (e.g., statement 72, M = 5.53) and that prior life experiences, such as previous work with students with disabilities or diverse backgrounds, positively influence their self-efficacy for inclusive practices.

3.1.5. Cluster Five: Professional Development

The cluster ‘Professional Development’ represents pre-service teachers’ perceived importance of inclusive and special education coursework alongside opportunities for professional development and workshops in pre-service teaching programs. This theme is characterized by the lowest bridging value (0.23) among the five clusters, indicating that this cluster has a distinct and coherent group of statements (see

Table 5. Professional Development: Concept Mapping Clusters, Statements, Importance Ratings, and Bridging Values.

Cluster Five	Professional Development	3.61	0.23
39	Learning support course	3.89	0
9	Special education course	4.47	0
52	Psychology classes	3.11	0.02
44	Math workshops	3.42	0.04
42	Professional development opportunities	4.37	0.04
46	Workshop about creating a good classroom environment	4.32	0.04
47	A course about creating a positive and safe classroom environment	4.42	0.04
19	Some of my coursework	2.95	0.15
74	Attending conferences	3.37	0.15
41	The teacher education program	4.0	0.21
53	Learning assistance class	3.79	0.31
50	Professor teaching a course	2.47	0.34
75	Talking to different professionals at conferences	3.74	0.37
54	Open discussion with my peers in class	3.89	0.4
56	Hearing from a special guest	4.11	0.41
28	Additional literature and resources	3.68	0.41
43	Educational websites	3.74	0.42
10	Book Lost at School by Ross Greene	2.26	0.51
48	Attending a summer institute	2.58	0.58

). For example, statements 47 (M = 4.42) and 46 (M = 4.32) highlight the importance of courses and workshops that contribute to creating positive and safe classroom environments. More specifically, statements 9 (M = 4.47) and 39 (M = 3.89) emphasize the value of special education and learning support courses.

3.2. Importance of Experiences

Following cluster analysis a repeated measures ANOVA was applied to analyze the participants’ importance ratings of the statements comprising the five clusters. Results from the ANOVA revealed significant differences among the five clusters (F(4, 72) = 41.65, p < 0.01). Post hoc analysis revealed that ‘Applying Knowledge’ (M = 5.15, SD = 0.69) and ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ (M = 4.89, SD = 0.59) were rated as significantly more important to participants’ self-efficacy for inclusive classroom practice than ‘Community Support’ (M = 4.32, SD = 0.68), ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs’, (M = 4.16, SD = 0.64) and ‘Professional Development’ (M = 3.61, SD = 0.69). ‘Community Support’ and ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs’ were also rated significantly higher than ‘Professional Development’.

3.3. Alignment with Bandura’s Sources of Efficacy

To better understand how pre-service teachers’ experiences align with Bandura’s four sources of self-efficacy, we analyzed how the identified clusters correspond to mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective states. This mapping brings together the specific ways coursework and practicum experiences contribute to self-efficacy development in inclusive teaching. This approach allows us to better understand the influence of the experiences shared by pre-service teachers. It is important to note that in our research, mastery experiences and verbal persuasion were comparably significant sources of self-efficacy for pre-service teachers, while vicarious experience was less significant but still important. The final level of analysis mapped the five clusters onto Bandura’s four sources of self-efficacy to identify how pre-service teachers’ experiences have shaped their efficacy in inclusive teaching (see

Table 6. Alignment of clusters with Bandura’s Four Sources of Self-Efficacy.

Bandura’s Sources of Self-Efficacy	Corresponding Cluster Themes
Mastery Experiences	Applying Knowledge Experience with Diverse Student Needs
Verbal Persuasion	Collaborating with Colleagues Community Support
Vicarious Experiences	Professional Development
Physiological and Affective States	No corresponding cluster

). Mastery experiences and verbal persuasion were the most influential sources of self-efficacy, while vicarious experiences played a lesser role, and no clusters aligned with physiological and affective states.

Two clusters, ‘Applying Knowledge’ and ‘Experience with Diverse Student Needs,’ align most closely with mastery experiences, reflecting the importance of direct classroom teaching practice. ‘Applying Knowledge’ was the highest-rated cluster, reflecting pre-service teachers’ emphasis on active and hands-on experiences. Similarly, ‘Experience with Diverse Learners’ expresses the idea that working directly with students with disabilities cultivates self-efficacy.

The clusters ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ and ‘Community Support’ were associated with verbal persuasion, emphasizing how interactions with associate teachers, school staff, and educational professionals contribute to self-efficacy. ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ was highly rated, aligning with structured mentorship and professional dialogue. ‘Community Support’ reflects the role of relationships with parents, educational assistants, and school administrators in strengthening efficacy beliefs in inclusive practices.

Finally, the cluster ‘Professional Development’ aligned with vicarious experiences and was rated the least influential cluster. While coursework, guest lectures, and workshops contributed to theoretical knowledge, pre-service teachers rated direct engagement with inclusive teaching settings more highly.

4. Discussion

Our findings diverge somewhat from Bandura’s framework regarding the relative influence of self-efficacy sources in pre-service teacher development. While Bandura positions vicarious experiences as the second most influential factor, our study finds that mastery experiences and verbal persuasion play a more significant role, with vicarious experiences remaining important but comparatively less influential (see Table 6). This difference reflects the specific experiences of pre-service teachers in our study, particularly their emphasis on active engagement in practicum settings and direct feedback from mentors as primary contributors to self-efficacy. In the following discussion, we elaborate on these findings, considering their alignment with Bandura’s source of self-efficacy.

4.1. Most Important Experiences: Applying Knowledge and Collaborating with Colleagues

‘Applying Knowledge’ and ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ were the highest-rated clusters in our research and reflect the importance of mastery experiences and verbal persuasion as sources for pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices. The components within each of these sources indicate the importance of direct engagement in teaching activities and collaborative interactions with associate teachers and other educators in the practicum setting.

‘Applying Knowledge’ aligns with Bandura’s concept of mastery experiences where hands-on and active learning environments are important influences on pre-service teachers’ developing sense of self-efficacy. In connection to inclusive research relating to the importance of direct experience in authentic settings (e.g., Specht & Metsala, 2018; Weber & Greiner, 2019), our study confirms how practicum-based mastery learning provides an essential source of self-efficacy for pre-service teachers. Clearly, practical and professionally authentic experiences are integral to the development of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Utilizing the richness of the learning experiences that are provided in practicum, these direct teaching experiences are integral for pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy to teach inclusively. Peebles and Mendaglio (2014) similarly found that opportunities to apply instructional strategies with students in practicum settings significantly contribute to the growth of self-efficacy. Building on inclusive research, pre-service teachers will boost their self-efficacy by having practica that provide mastery experiences in real-life settings, aligning with Florian’s (2021) assertion that effective teacher education programs involve intentionally linking theoretical coursework with applied practice in inclusive classrooms.

As Berg and Smith (2016) note, the foundation of teacher self-efficacy is established early in teacher education, indicating how important well-supported practicum experiences are in terms of meaningful collaboration with experienced educators. The cluster ‘Collaborating with Colleagues’ represents the role of verbal persuasion in pre-service teacher training and highlights how important it is for pre-service teachers to engage collaboratively, primarily with associate teachers but also with other educators in schools, where they receive feedback and mentorship. Clark and Newberry (2019) and Gallagher and Bennett (2017) demonstrate the positive impact of these supportive networks on teaching practices and the inclusion of students with disabilities. Hands-on opportunities with students with special education needs, particularly when coupled with close mentorship from the associate teacher, significantly enhance pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy (Hamman et al., 2013). Garvis and Pendergast (2016) illustrate how self-efficacy is shaped not only through instructional experiences but also by the broader educational environment, including mentorship and collaborative dialogue with professional educators. In our research, it is evident that pre-service teachers value their experiences in the educational community (e.g., discussions with special education teachers and other school professionals), which contribute to their professional growth and confidence. Notably, our research highlights specific statements about receiving guided feedback, engaging in collaborative planning, and receiving assurance. These collaborative interactions between associate teachers and pre-service teachers are important for enhancing pre-service teachers’ inclusive self-efficacy.

4.2. Moderately Important Experiences: Community Support and Experiences with Diverse Student Needs

Verbal persuasion and mastery experiences were also rated as moderately important as reflected in the ‘Community Support’ and ‘Experiences with Diverse Student Needs’ clusters.

The cluster ‘Community Support’ relates to the role of verbal persuasion through the support of parents, educational assistants, and school administrators. In aligning with Bandura’s concept of verbal persuasion, our findings express the impact of social interactions and support systems on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy, emphasizing the collective support from parents, educational assistants, and principals. Statements in our research related to the influence of positive interactions with school principals and educational assistants. Though research on the influence of school principals is sparse, there is evidence about the influence of EAs. Young et al. (2018) found that conversations between pre-service teachers and EAs provided pre-service teachers with insights into students’ interests as well as effective strategies for children with disabilities. Evans (2013) found that establishing relationships with parents during their practicums influences how pre-service teachers impact their students’ learning and social development but that building these relationships with students’ families is anxiety-inducing for many pre-service teachers (Evans, 2013). This suggests the importance of learning about family engagement and relational strategies into both coursework and practicum components of pre-service teacher education.

Practicum offers pre-service teachers valuable mastery learning opportunities to apply pedagogical learning in authentic contexts with students’ diverse learning needs.

In our research, pre-service participants with prior experiences with diverse needs are important to their self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Opportunities to work directly with students, observe student progress firsthand, and try out various teaching strategies were rated important to self-efficacy. Though this category connects quite closely to mastery experiences, it is working directly with students with disabilities in an authentic setting that separates this cluster from ‘Applying Knowledge’. Direct experience with inclusive teaching helps pre-service teachers develop practical strategies and relationships with students with diverse needs (Specht & Metsala, 2018; Morris et al., 2017; Young et al., 2018). These results also support Charles et al.’s (2023) finding that longer practicum placements strengthen pre-service teachers’ confidence when they involve sustained work with students who have diverse learning needs. As Garvis and Pendergast (2016) illustrate, exposure to authentic teaching contexts is integral to developing teachers’ confidence to support diverse learners, especially in inclusive environments.

4.3. Least Important Experiences

‘Professional Development’ relating to Bandura’s vicarious experience was the lowest-rated cluster in terms of importance for contributing to pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Despite its lower rating, learning from experts through coursework, workshops, and guest lectures offers important opportunities for pre-service teachers to learn effective strategies and management techniques, providing both theoretical and practical knowledge (Morris et al., 2017). Opportunities such as envisioning oneself teaching, watching experts model strategies, or presenting to peers are examples of vicarious experiences that can significantly shape pre-service teachers’ efficacy in inclusive practices (Clark & Newberry, 2019). Our research indicates that relationships with associate teachers and other members of the school community are important. However, this is less about opportunities to learn from observing than it is about having supportive relationships with them. As Garvis and Pendergast (2016) showcase in their volume, vicarious learning–such as observing expert teachers–is best utilized when it is accompanied by structured opportunities for application in order to influence teacher self-efficacy.

4.4. Limitations

Our research, focused on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy within Canadian inclusive educational settings, is represented by a participant pool with limited ethnic and gender diversity. This limitation might narrow the applicability to broader demographics and different educational contexts, such as regions with differing inclusive attitudes and practices.

4.5. Implications and Future Research

The cluster of highest importance for pre-service teachers, ‘Applying Knowledge’, aligns with Bandura’s mastery experiences as the most significant source of self-efficacy. Our findings confirm that pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for teaching students with disabilities improves from their practica—particularly when those placements are of longer duration and offer authentic opportunities for instructional practice (Charles et al., 2023). Practicum and fieldwork provide pre-service teachers with a critical learning environment to practice and learn to differentiate their instruction in real classrooms (Peebles & Mendaglio, 2014). These opportunities to implement the theory in practice reinforce the value of active, applied learning in fostering inclusive self-efficacy, echoing calls within the field to more deliberately bridge coursework and practical experience in teacher education (Florian, 2021).

Although Bandura identifies vicarious experience as the second most influential source of teacher self-efficacy, our results suggest that pre-service teachers place greater value on supportive interactions with educators than just observing expert practices. The clusters ‘Collaboration with Colleagues’ and ‘Community Support’, both representing verbal persuasion and social influence, were rated significantly more influential than ‘Professional Development’, which reflects vicarious experiences in our study. This suggests a need for future research to examine more closely how vicarious learning unfolds in teacher education.

The importance participants placed on supportive interactions illuminates the interplay between Bandura’s sources of self-efficacy and the importance of dynamic and supportive learning environments in contributing to effective inclusive practices. Future research, therefore, should explore integrating vicarious experiences with more direct engagement in practicum and teacher education coursework. Specifically, research in teacher education programs should ensure that pre-service teachers’ practicum opportunities include receiving quality feedback from associate teachers and professors in real teaching environments to ensure the connection between the field and the classroom.

Our findings did not feature physiological and affective states and, therefore, did not tap into the underlying ways in which experiences made pre-service teachers feel or how their ability to regulate might influence their efficacy for inclusive practices. This gap suggests a potential area for future research, exploring how this source can be better understood in relation to pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy in diverse educational settings. For example, Morris et al. (2017) suggest that teachers who can self-regulate effectively are more self-efficacious in managing classrooms, interacting with students, and developing confidence in teaching compared to less-regulated peers. Framing future research with questions for understanding what kinds of experiences stimulate, excite, or decrease perceptions of self-efficacy will help researchers understand the ways pre-service teachers navigate and regulate their emotions while learning to teach inclusively.

In aligning our findings with Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy framework, this study demonstrates the importance of hands-on learning and supportive relationships within practicum settings for enhancing pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive education. These are central to fostering mastery and facilitating the practical application of theoretical knowledge in diverse classroom contexts. This suggests that teacher education programs should prioritize immersive, interactive experiences that extend beyond observation and include active mentorship and meaningful feedback.

5. Conclusions

Our study reaffirms the important role of self-efficacy in preparing pre-service teachers for inclusive education settings. Guided by Bandura’s framework, our mixed-methods research highlights practicum experiences and supportive relationships as pivotal contributors to developing pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. Unlike traditional vicarious learning, these hands-on, interactive experiences offer authentic contexts for applying theoretical knowledge in diverse classrooms. Given the global emphasis on inclusive education, evidenced in policy shifts and advocacy efforts, our findings suggest that teacher education programs that prioritize mentorship and feedback-rich environments can better support the development of self-efficacy for inclusive teaching. Interestingly, vicarious learning experiences provided by associate teachers or university professors were not rated as highly important by participants, suggesting a need for a deeper exploration of how these teaching and learning relationships are enacted. Looking ahead, future research should investigate which specific practicum experiences most effectively build self-efficacy, particularly those that bridge the interrelationships among the four sources of self-efficacy. Our use of concept mapping has provided a unique lens for understanding how pre-service teachers conceptualize their professional growth, laying the groundwork for further exploration of the complex dynamics of teacher preparation and its influence on inclusive education practices.