Gender, Ethnicity and Teaching Competencies: Do They Influence Intercultural Communicative Competence in Teacher Education?

Abstract

Globalization has transformed classrooms into culturally diverse environments, highlighting the critical need to prepare future teachers with skills to address these complexities. This study explores Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) as a fundamental skill in initial teacher training (ITT), aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 4, which promotes inclusive, equitable and quality education. Through a narrative literature review, this research analyzes the main definitions and theoretical models of ICC, examining their relationship to gender, ethnicity and the teaching competencies of the faculty member. The findings highlight the lack of a unified consensus in the conceptualization of ICC, reflecting its dynamic and interdisciplinary nature. The results indicate that while gender does not significantly influence the development of ICC, ethnicity and migrant background are linked to a greater willingness to acquire it. In addition, the reflective and specialized training of the faculty member emerges as a decisive factor in the promotion of the ICC. These findings underscore the need to integrate ICC into initial teacher education plans to better prepare future teachers in multicultural contexts. By addressing equity and cultural diversity, the ICC supports educators in promoting respectful, effective and inclusive interactions, ultimately contributing to the achievement of SDG No. 4. This study enriches the discourse on teacher education and intercultural education by offering practical perspectives for connecting theory with practice in diverse educational contexts.

1. Introduction

In recent years, high migratory flow, combined with the increase in virtual interactions derived from the COVID-19 pandemic, has intensified exchanges between people of diverse cultural backgrounds. These phenomena, together with the processes of globalization, have transformed classrooms into increasingly diverse spaces, where students of different nationalities and ethnic groups coexist (Novikova et al., 2022). These dynamics not only require new forms of coexistence but also present challenges for education systems, which must ensure inclusion and equity in a context of growing cultural diversity (Nfor, 2023; Yu & Yu, 2024).

Based on the above, the importance of training teachers and education professionals in diversity and inclusion issues is highlighted today, in order to ensure teaching–learning processes that have a social projection and help ensure quality education from any context (Pedraja-Rejas et al., 2023). This approach is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 4, proposed by UNESCO (2016), which prioritizes “ensuring inclusive, equitable and quality education, and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all”. This framework emphasizes the importance of initial teacher training (ITT) that not only transmits disciplinary, methodological and pedagogical knowledge but also fosters personal development, self-discovery and cultural awareness (Suárez et al., 2019). This preparation is crucial to address the challenges that arise in multicultural classrooms, promoting harmonious and respectful interactions in diverse educational contexts (Pedraja-Rejas & Tovar-Correal, 2024).

The development of Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is presented as a key aspect of higher education since the experiences lived during this stage have a significant impact on its strengthening, both in teachers and students (Atan, 2020; Griffith et al., 2016). ICC not only facilitates effective and appropriate interactions but also promotes an open attitude towards learning from the different cultures represented in the classroom. In addition, it helps to overcome linguistic and cultural barriers that hinder inclusive learning fostering respectful environments and deep learning (Arasaratnam-Smith, 2020; Chau et al., 2024; Fantini, 2021; Sarwari et al., 2024).

The development of ICC is not limited to a specific educational stage but constitutes a continuous process that evolves throughout life, depending on the experiences and contexts in which people develop (Arasaratnam-Smith & Deardorff, 2023; Deardorff, 2020; Sablic et al., 2021). Therefore, it is essential to design strategies and programs that effectively respond to intercultural training needs (Wang et al., 2023). However, although the literature on intercultural competence (IC) and ICC share similar objectives, a lack of consensus persists in their definitions. This gap underscores the need to deepen the essential elements underpinning the ICC, in order to establish a solid basis for proposing intervention strategies.

Gender and ethnicity emerge as relevant variables in the development of ICC. Various studies have indicated that these variables not only condition the individual experiences of students and teachers but also influence the dynamics of interaction in multicultural classrooms. For example, it has been found that women tend to exhibit higher levels of intercultural sensitivity, demonstrating greater empathy and openness towards inclusive cultural interactions (Liu, 2022; Solhaug & Kristensen, 2020). This predisposition is often associated with receptive and respectful attitudes towards cultural diversity. In addition, previous research has shown that teacher gender can influence student perception and performance, affecting how students relate to knowledge and classroom interaction (Dee, 2007; Robinson-Cimpian et al., 2014).

For ethnic minority students, evidence shows that the development of a consolidated ethnic identity favors greater ICC skills. This is due to their direct experiences with social and cultural heterogeneity, as well as processes of self-reflection and critical analysis (Adebayo & Heinz, 2024; Syring et al., 2019).

Finally, the role of the faculty member is crucial in the development of the ICC (Borysenko et al., 2022) and in the formation of global citizens committed to the principles of sustainability (Estellés & Fischman, 2021). Universities, as institutions committed to academic, work, research and social goals, need to have competent teachers not only in pedagogical and disciplinary aspects but also in ethical values and intercultural skills that promote inclusive and equitable education (Estellés & Fischman, 2021; Jiménez-Hernández et al., 2018; Martínez et al., 2023). Well-trained academics not only enrich the educational process but also act as facilitators, implementing strategies that foster critical thinking, empathy and openness to cultural diversity. However, the intercultural training of many teachers remains insufficient, which constitutes a significant barrier to promoting these essential competencies in students (Lee et al., 2023).

In this context, this research poses the question: How do gender, ethnicity and the teaching competencies of the faculty member interact in the development of ICC in initial teacher-training students, and what are their differentiated impacts? This study not only analyzes the influence of these variables on the development of CCI but also offers a unique contribution to the field by exploring the intersection between gender, ethnicity and teacher competencies of faculty members, an area that has received little attention in the existing literature. Through a theoretically grounded approach, this paper provides solid evidence on how these variables interact to shape the development of CCI, thus offering new insights for teacher education in multicultural contexts. In addition, this article provides theoretical foundations for the design of inclusive strategies in diverse educational contexts.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Intercultural Competence vs. Intercultural Communicative Competence

The interest in themes associated with interculturality is diverse. The scientific community, specialized in the subject, comes from numerous academic disciplines, which generates a lack of consensus regarding the use of key terms. In some documents related to IC, terms such as intercultural competence, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural efficiency, intercultural effectiveness, intercultural awareness and intercultural adaptation, among others, are used interchangeably (Arasaratnam, 2016; Fantini, 2020; Munezane, 2024; Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009). The same is true for ICC, where the definition varies according to culture, context, and language (Boynazarov, 2022; Chen, 2014; Fantini, 2021; Figueroa & Hofhuis, 2024; Gibson & Zhong, 2005; Luo & Chan, 2022; Romijn et al., 2021; Sabet & Chapman, 2023).

Given this terminological diversity, it is essential to explore not only contemporary definitions, but also the origins of their study, in order to understand how the field has developed over time.

The beginnings of cross-cultural communication can be traced back to Hall’s work in the 1950s (Simpson et al., 2022). Subsequently, in the 1970s and 1980s, academics conceptualized IC from two positions: the first was associated with a behavioral construct and the second was related to an attitudinal or cognitive construct. At the same time, Hymes (1972) defined communicative competence, approaching it from two dimensions: grammatical and sociolinguistic, a concept that would later be developed and give way to the ICC. In 1980, Canale and Swain included strategic competence, giving a multifaceted character to the concept, while Meyer introduced adaptability and flexibility as necessary characteristics to deal with interactions with foreign cultures (Youfi & Brigui, 2024).

Currently, many researchers agree on three fundamental components to define IC and ICC: the cognitive component, referring to intercultural awareness; the affective component, related to intercultural sensitivity; and the behavioral component, which incorporates intercultural ability, that is, the ability to achieve intercultural communicative interactions (Chen, 2014). Both competencies focus on the set of skills that allow a person to have a positive interaction with people from other cultures, based on positive attitudes, mutual recognition and empathy (Carter-Thuillier et al., 2022).

Although there are multiple definitions of IC or ICC, one of the most influential and frequently cited authors in the development of the field is Byram. Among his main contributions is the delimitation and definition that he manages to establish of the terms CI and ICC, based on the use of a first or second language. From this perspective, IC refers to the skills necessary for an individual to achieve adequate communicative interaction using their mother tongue. In the event that the individual needs to use a foreign language to interact, it will be referred to as ICC (Schauer, 2024).

Accurately understanding the difference between CI and ICC not only clarifies the concepts and their theoretical relevance but also establishes a solid foundation for structuring an analysis aligned with the research objectives. This distinction allows the particularities of each competence to be identified in greater detail in different educational contexts, which facilitates the development of culturally adapted and relevant pedagogical strategies.

2.2. Models of Intercultural Communicative Competence

Throughout the process of understanding and defining ICC, various models have been developed that seek to explain its evolution and key components that make it up. In order to foster consensus around the conceptual framework of the ICC and to highlight its importance in ITT, this section discusses the most prominent models in the literature and their relevance in this context.

One of the most referenced models in the literature is Byram’s (1997) intercultural communicative competence model. This model focuses on describing the factors involved in successful intercultural communication, especially in the context of language learning (Hoff, 2014). Among its main contributions, the identification of five fundamental forms of knowledge stands out: knowing how to be (attitudes), knowing how to know (knowledge), knowing how to do (practical skills), knowing how to learn (skills to discover and interact) and knowing how to commit (critical and political awareness). These components underscore the importance of holistic learning that not only develops language skills but also fosters cultural sensitivity, critical thinking and respect for cultural diversity (Byram, 1997).

Likewise, Deardorff’s (2006) model is widely recognized as a solid conceptual framework for understanding and developing intercultural competence. Her approach focuses on the idea that intercultural competence is a dynamic and continuous process that integrates cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions. One of the distinctive features of the model is its circular nature, reflecting the constant feedback between elements of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Deardorff stresses the importance of values such as respect, openness and curiosity in fostering meaningful intercultural interactions. In addition, the model emphasizes the adaptability and ability of individuals to reevaluate their perspectives based on cross-cultural experiences, resulting in a transformative process on both a personal and societal level. This comprehensive approach allows us not only to understand cultural diversity but also to act effectively and appropriately in multicultural contexts, offering practical guidance for the design of educational programs that promote inclusion and cultural equity.

Arasaratnam et al. (2008) developed the Integrated Model of Intercultural Communication Competence (IMICC) that integrates diverse cultural perspectives from an emic approach. This model combines elements such as empathy, experience, motivation, attitude towards other cultures and active interaction to describe ICC. Through the use of structural equations, the IMICC demonstrates how these variables interact in a dynamic process that allows effective and appropriate communication in intercultural contexts. In addition, it emphasizes the importance of understanding the perspectives of the interlocutors and encourages continuous adaptation during cross-cultural interactions.

Munezane (2021), inspired by Byram’s model and Hoff’s critical approach, developed a hypothetical model that integrates nine key variables: openness to experience, interdependent self-construction, ethnocentrism, willingness to communicate, constructive conflict resolution, ICC, motivation to engage in intercultural communication, motivation to introduce one’s own culture and trust in intercultural interaction. This model highlights that constructive conflict resolution is a crucial indicator for ICC, as people tend to employ culturally learned strategies to resolve disagreements and reach agreements with linguistically and culturally different interlocutors.

Sabirjanovna (2022) developed an educational model for teaching ICC, focused on facilitating effective intercultural cooperation and neutralizing stereotypes. This model emphasizes the importance of accepting the sociocultural identity of a foreign society and expressing professional information in a foreign language. According to the author, communicative skills are not only limited to language proficiency but also require one to understand cultural differences, foster empathy and promote constructive dialog in diverse contexts.

Accordingly, Nadeem and Zabrodskaja (2023) formulated the Integral Intercultural Communication Model (CMIC) based on Gudykunst’s theory of anxiety and uncertainty management, Bennett’s intercultural sensitivity development model, Byram’s five-factor model and Arasaratnam and Doerfel’s IMICC model. The model identifies four developmental stages necessary for effective intercultural adjustment: intercultural effectiveness, intercultural competence, intercultural adjustment and intercultural adaptation. According to the authors, CMIC is an ongoing process in which individuals evolve, going through each phase as they are exposed to new cultures.

Nfor (2023) proposed a model of Intercultural communicative competence based on the experiences of university students participating in Model United Nations courses and conferences. This model discusses ICC as an ability to interact effectively and appropriately with people from different cultures in multicultural contexts, using a foreign language as a means of communication. Through interviews and thematic analysis, the study identified five main dimensions that reflect this competence: Curiosity and Openness, Behavioral Flexibility, Knowledge of the Other, Empathy and Tolerance and Ambiguity.

In the Japanese context, Munezane (2025) proposed the model of the intercultural communicative competence tree, based on a survey and semi-structured interviews applied to university students, language teachers and public personnel. This model represents interculturality with a dynamic process, in constant growth and evolution. It is composed of three symbolic pillars: the roots, which represent the common goal of creating a peaceful and egalitarian world; the core, which incorporates proactive communication and perseverance, focusing on similarities, logical thinking and integral human power; and the sheets, which represent the specific components of the ICC, including knowledge, attitudes, skills, internal outcomes (adaptability and empathy) and external outcomes (effective communicative interactions and appropriate behaviors). This model highlights the importance of integrating universal values and practical skills to foster personal and social transformation.

Like Bennet’s intercultural sensitivity model, other models are not included in this conceptualization. This is because they do not explicitly address the communicative component that is central to the ICC. That is, it does not delve into the linguistic or pragmatic skills necessary to interact in an intercultural context.

2.3. Initial Teacher Training, Intercultural Communicative Competence and Diversity

Communication is a fundamental process in human interaction, through which individuals exchange information and meaning and build relationships in various social contexts (Higgins & Semin, 2001). From an intercultural approach, communication becomes a meeting space between people who come from different contexts, each with their own norms, values, beliefs and linguistic practices. This phenomenon is especially relevant in educational settings, where the cultural diversity of students―understood as the coexistence and interaction of individuals with different ethnic, linguistic, religious and social backgrounds, among others (Ithuralde & Dumrauf, 2021)―poses significant challenges for teachers.

In this sense, the formation of culturally diverse classrooms entails the need to train teachers with intercultural competencies, which allows them to face the challenges that this implies. In an educational context that is poorly prepared for the management of cultural diversity, perceptions that label students from diverse backgrounds as an additional problem tend to prevail (I. M. Álvarez & González, 2018). However, intercultural competencies in teachers make it possible to counteract these perceptions, promoting respect for diversity and contributing to maintaining the ethnic and cultural identity of students (Alonso-Díaz et al., 2018). In the same way, they favor the development of skills that allow a better understanding of the characteristics of students with diverse backgrounds, generating culturally appropriate pedagogical strategies (I. M. Álvarez & González, 2018). To this end, the development of ICC in teachers must be understood as a gradual process that requires intentionality (I. M. Álvarez & González, 2018; Drandić, 2013).

To equip ICC teachers, it is necessary for curricula to provide ITT students with the content and experiences necessary for successful performance in culturally diverse schools and classes (Sablic et al., 2021). In addition, the development of intercultural competencies cannot be separated from the linguistic particularities of educational contexts. Therefore, it is relevant to consider diatopic variables in teacher training.

These variables refer to the differences that occur in a language, associated with the region of origin or belonging of the speaker. They not only involve linguistic aspects but also encompass cultural and social practices that influence intercultural interaction and teaching–learning processes within the classroom (Tovar-Correal & Bustos, 2022). Therefore, its approach within the ITT process is essential to guarantee training that effectively responds to the cultural diversity characteristic of educational contexts. In this framework, education, conceived as a common good, must be guided not by rigid universal principles, but through an awareness of otherness and a genuine recognition of difference (Choo, 2023). This approach promotes an inclusive and reflective pedagogy, capable of responding to cultural diversity in an equitable and respectful manner (Arasaratnam-Smith & Deardorff, 2023).

In this context, higher education plays a crucial role in fostering a nurturing learning environment and intercultural educational opportunities. This environment not only encourages the adaptation and personal development and growth of students but also promotes the creation of culturally competent professionals, committed to building an equitable and inclusive society (Ailauova et al., 2024; Dzerviniks et al., 2024; Eren, 2023; Filipović & Jurišić, 2024; Rodríguez-Ponce & Fleet, 2020; Sarwari et al., 2024). In this way, higher education and ITT are positioned as key spaces to integrate strategies that promote inclusive and quality intercultural training.

2.4. Gender and Intercultural Communicative Competence

The gender perspective in research has evolved significantly, moving from treating sex as a fixed and bipolar category to considering it a dynamic characteristic shaped by social activities and contexts (Główka, 2014; Thornton et al., 2021). This shift has facilitated a deeper understanding of gender differences and similarities in various fields. However, in the field of ICC, studies tend to report variables in a dichotomous manner, approaching them from the perspective of gender or sex, generally in terms of male–female or female–male.

The development of ICC is determined by the interaction of personal variables (such as empathy, open-mindedness, adaptability, flexibility, language skills, etc.) and contextual variables (perceptions of equality and agency, shared goals, incentives, etc.). These variables allow us to establish whether communication is effective from one’s own perspective and the appropriate perspective of others (Arasaratnam, 2016).

Researchers have explored the relationship between gender and ICC through three main components that make it up: cognitive, affective and behavioral. This approach has facilitated the identification of various performance characteristics through the application of qualitative or quantitative tests, revealing specific patterns that show how gender differences influence the development of intercultural skills. In particular, reports predominantly highlight better performance by women in the cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains (Vilà Baños, 2006; Halpern et al., 2011).

Learning a second language plays a crucial role. Beyond providing linguistic tools, this process facilitates access to diverse cultural systems, fosters empathy and promotes cultural negotiation and adaptability, which are fundamental competencies to interact effectively in multicultural environments. In addition, learning a second language involves the internalization of symbolic elements of an ethnolinguistic community, which helps to build a flexible and open intercultural identity (Munezane, 2025).

Among the key factors in this learning are motivation, self-esteem and anxiety (Bao & Liu, 2021). Evidence suggests that women excel in aspects related to motivation, while men show better performance in managing anxiety (van der Slik et al., 2015). Regarding the variable of empathy, various studies, even those supported by neurological diagnostic imaging, have shown that women possess greater empathic skills (Li, 2025; Rueckert & Naybar, 2008; Wassmann, 2011). Similarly, Holm et al. (2009) reported that women have better intercultural sensitivity skills.

In this sense, understanding these differences is not only essential for research but also for educational practice. Heidari et al. (2019) underline the importance of studies including prior evidence on the influence of sex and gender on the variables analyzed. This type of analysis allows for the construction of more inclusive and innovative approaches that respond to the diversity of needs in multicultural contexts.

2.5. Ethnic Identity and Its Relationship with the Development of Intercultural Communicative Competence

Ethnic identity plays a crucial role in the development of ICC, especially in diverse educational contexts. It is understood as the subjective sense of belonging to an ethnic group. By identifying with such an ethnic group, individuals can construct their ethnic identity based on history or shared collective experiences. Moreover, this identity allows individuals to perceive themselves and others as part of a collective through ancestral, historical and emotional bonds (Bennett, 2015). This identification process facilitates the construction of an identity that strengthens students’ sense of belonging and self-esteem, which in turn improves their academic engagement and ability to interact effectively in multicultural environments (Juang & Hwang, 2024; Pevec-Zimmer et al., 2024).

Similarly, the affirmation of identity in students contributes to the development of ICC by promoting the reduction in prejudices, as well as empathy, openness to the other and the ability to negotiate meanings in diverse contexts (Abdullahi et al., 2024; Juang & Hwang, 2024; Türken et al., 2024).

Research supports the need to guide spaces in which FID students critically reflect on their ethnic-cultural identities, allowing them to address the diversities present in the classroom with greater confidence and sensitivity (Juang & Hwang, 2024; Türken et al., 2024). Likewise, culturally responsive pedagogical approaches emphasize the importance of recognizing and valuing students’ cultural experiences as educational resources.

This involves challenging deficient views of minority communities and promoting practices that strengthen positive ethnic identities, which are linked to better psychosocial and academic outcomes (Pevec-Zimmer et al., 2024; Türken et al., 2024). By integrating multicultural perspectives into the curriculum and fostering contextualized learning, ITT students not only expand their intercultural competencies but also contribute to the creation of more equitable and representative educational environments (Abdullahi et al., 2024; Dursun et al., 2021; Türken et al., 2024).

2.6. Teaching Competencies

Generating a nurtured and enlightened society depends mainly on the excellence of higher education and the efficiency of institutions (Maldonado et al., 2024). In this context, the role played by faculty members during ITT is paramount. The combination of personal, work and qualification aspects of teachers has a significant impact on student performance. The presence of female professors, as well as teachers from diverse and minority groups, represents a positive factor in student learning, who consider them role models (Syring et al., 2019; Tamam & Krauss, 2017). In addition, teachers’ motivation to learn about the characteristics of their students’ profiles, together with the time and effort dedicated to advice and guidance, contributes to the development of key competencies (Alonso-Díaz et al., 2018) and encourages self-realization in a culturally diverse world (Borysenko et al., 2022).

Performance, in a traditional way, requires academics to integrate disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge and competencies, as well as skills in management, innovation, and research (Suárez et al., 2019). However, Noben et al. (2022) point out that, although teachers may have the necessary knowledge to develop their classes, they face significant challenges in the practical implementation of this knowledge. However, other authors report that continuous training leads to better performance in university professors and that, due to social and educational needs, updating must be constant (A. Álvarez & Storey, 2021; Schneider & Preckel, 2017).

Thus, preparation not only influences students’ meaningful learning but also facilitates relevant educational transformations by promoting the development of intercultural and pedagogical competencies (Jiménez-Hernández et al., 2018). In this way, the role of the university teacher is not limited to the transmission of knowledge but also involves generating the necessary conditions for students to create opportunities for self-realization in an intercultural world (Borysenko et al., 2022).

Consequently, it is essential to provide teachers with opportunities for frequent pedagogical training to respond appropriately to the dynamics of current educational contexts (Tuononen et al., 2025).

ICC is configured as a complex and multifaceted construct that integrates cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, essential to promote effective and appropriate interactions in intercultural contexts. From the models analyzed, it is clear that factors such as gender, ethnic identity and the teaching competencies of the faculty member play a fundamental role in its development, especially in ITT. Gender influences empathy, motivation and flexibility, which allows us to identify significant differences in the way men and women approach cross-cultural interactions. On the other hand, ethnic identity strengthens students’ sense of belonging and self-efficacy, while the recognition of students’ and teachers’ cultural experiences is presented as a key resource to foster respect for diversity and equity in the classroom.

Finally, the competencies of the teaching staff, defined by their academic preparation, cultural awareness and pedagogical commitment, act as a catalyst that drives the development of inclusive educational strategies. This conceptual framework not only deepens the theoretical understanding of ICC but also lays the groundwork for designing educational interventions that respond effectively to the demands of diverse cultural contexts.

3. Methods

This research adopts a narrative review of literature design (Ferrari, 2015; Green et al., 2006; Snyder, 2019). This approach was chosen for its ability to integrate and critically analyze, from a theoretical and conceptual perspective, a wide variety of interdisciplinary (Rother, 2007) research on IPC in the context of ITT. Since ICC is a construct that involves multiple theoretical and empirical perspectives, a narrative review allows identifying patterns, gaps and convergences in the existing literature, ensuring a thorough and meaningful analysis.

The literature search was conducted in five recognized academic databases: Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), Taylor & Francis, SAGE and ProQuest. These platforms were selected for their reach in the fields of education, social sciences and humanities. To maximize the relevance of the results, key terms such as “intercultural communicative competence”, “gender and education”, “ethnic diversity and teacher training” and “inclusive education and teacher quality” were used. In addition, studies in Spanish and other relevant languages were included when their quality and relevance justified it, guaranteeing a multicultural perspective. The search strategy was adjusted iteratively, as suggested by Snyder (2019), to ensure that the results were consistent with the objectives of the study. Throughout the sample selection process, constant communication was maintained between the authors, who had to reach a consensus on the inclusion of each article in the review.

The publication period was limited to the years 2019 to 2024, following the obsolescence law described by Araujo Inastrilla et al. (2024). This criterion ensures that the reviewed literature reflects the most recent advances in the field, avoiding interpretations based on outdated data. Grey literature, such as internal reports or unpublished theses, was not included to ensure that the selected sources met the highest methodological and academic standards.

The analysis of the selected literature was carried out using the MAXQDA 24 software. This tool facilitated the organization and coding of the texts, allowing the identification of patterns and thematic gaps. The documents were analyzed under pre-defined key categories: the conceptual foundations of the ICC, the theoretical models applied to ITT, the influences of gender and ethnic diversity and the relationship between the teaching competencies of the faculty member and the development of an inclusive educational approach.

The results were structured in three main axes. The first explores the conceptual definitions and theoretical models of the ICC, highlighting its evolution in diverse educational contexts. The second axis analyzes how gender and ethnic diversity influence the development of intercultural competencies in future teachers, identifying key social and cultural dynamics. Finally, the third axis examines the relationship between the teaching competencies of the faculty member and the promotion of inclusive educational environments, underlining the importance of competent teachers committed to diversity. Figure 1 summarizes visually the methodological flow followed in this research.

4. Results

The thoughtful thematic analysis, supported by the MAXQDA software, identified three key dimensions that influence the development of ICC in ITT: gender, ethnicity and teaching competencies. Likewise, the need to differentiate between the concepts of intercultural competence (IC) and ICC was evidenced in order to clarify theoretical and practical perspectives.

4.1. Conceptual Differentiation Between Intercultural Competence (IC) and Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)

Academic interest in topics related to interculturality encompasses disciplinary diversity, which generates a lack of consensus regarding the use of key terms. In many documents, concepts such as intercultural competence, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural effectiveness, intercultural awareness and intercultural adaptation are used interchangeably (Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009). This scenario is replicated in the ICC setting, where the definition of the term varies according to the cultural, disciplinary and linguistic context (Boynazarov, 2022; Chen, 2014; Fantini, 2021; Figueroa & Hofhuis, 2024; Gibson & Zhong, 2005; Luo & Chan, 2022; Romijn et al., 2021; Sabet & Chapman, 2023).

Given this terminological diversity, it is essential not only to analyze contemporary definitions but also to explore the origins of their conceptual development. Cross-cultural communication has its roots in Hall’s work during the 1950s (Simpson et al., 2022).

Subsequently, in the 1970s and 1980s, IC was approached from two main approaches: the behavioral, focused on practical skills, and the attitudinal or cognitive, oriented to internal aspects such as values and knowledge. At the same time, Hymes (1972) introduced the concept of communicative competence, which incorporated grammatical and sociolinguistic dimensions. Later, Canale and Swain (1980) added strategic competence, while Meyer highlighted adaptability and flexibility as essential capabilities for interaction with foreign cultures (Youfi & Brigui, 2024).

Currently, many researchers agree on three fundamental components to define IC and ICC: the cognitive component, referring to intercultural awareness; the affective component, related to intercultural sensitivity; and the behavioral component, which incorporates intercultural ability, that is, the ability to achieve intercultural communicative interactions (Chen, 2014). Both competencies focus on the set of skills that allow a person to have a positive interaction with people from other cultures, based on positive attitudes, mutual recognition, and empathy (Carter-Thuillier et al., 2022).

Although there are multiple definitions of IC or ICC, one of the most influential and frequently cited authors in the development of the field is Byram. Among his main contributions is the delimitation and definition that he manages to establish of the terms CI and ICC, based on the use of a first or second language. From this perspective, IC refers to the skills necessary for an individual to achieve adequate communicative interaction using their mother tongue. In the event that the individual needs to use a foreign language to interact, it will be referred to as ICC (Schauer, 2024), as shown in

Table 1. Conceptual differentiation between intercultural competence (IC) and intercultural communicative competence (ICC).

Aspect	Intercultural Competence (IC)	Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)
Definition	Skills required for effective communication within one’s native language in intercultural interactions.	Skills necessary for effective intercultural communication when using a foreign language.
Historical Development	Rooted in Hall’s work on cross-cultural communication (1950s); expanded in the 1970s and 1980s with behavioral and cognitive approaches.	Developed from Hymes’ (1972) concept of communicative competence, expanded by Canale and Swain (1980) and Meyer.
Key Components	Cognitive (intercultural awareness), affective (intercultural sensitivity), behavioral (intercultural ability).	Cognitive (intercultural awareness), affective (intercultural sensitivity), behavioral (intercultural ability).
Language Use	Operates within the framework of one’s first language.	Applies when interacting using a second or foreign language.
Practical Application	Focuses on general intercultural interaction skills without necessarily involving a second language.	Emphasizes the integration of linguistic and cultural skills to facilitate intercultural communication.
Relevance in ITT	Helps future educators understand and navigate cultural diversity within their own linguistic context.	Essential in ITT as future educators must integrate language and cultural knowledge to teach in multicultural classrooms.

.

This conceptual distinction is particularly relevant in ITT, where future educators face the challenge of integrating linguistic and cultural competencies to meet the demands of multicultural classrooms. Understanding these differences not only contributes to clarifying key concepts but also underscores the importance of designing pedagogical strategies aimed at strengthening the communication skills of ITT students, so that they can successfully address the challenges posed by cultural diversity in the educational environment (He et al., 2024).

4.2. Gender and Its Influence on Intercultural Communicative Competence

Various studies have explored the impact of gender on the development of intercultural communicative competence (ICC), showing heterogeneous results that reflect both disparities and coincidences between men and women. These findings suggest that the relationship between gender and ICC is complex and depends on multiple contextual, methodological and cultural factors, which invites careful and nuanced analysis.

4.2.1. Differences Related to Intercultural Sensitivity and Emotions

A body of research suggests that women tend to demonstrate greater sensitivity to cultural differences and a more developed ability to recognize emotions in cross-cultural contexts. For example, Novikova et al. (2020) found that women are more sensitive to cultural differences, a finding consistent with previous research that associates this sensitivity with greater empathy and emotional recognition (Albiero & Matricardi, 2013; Strøm & Sørlien Molstad, 2020). Holm et al. (2009) found that for girls and students with high academic abilities, levels of intercultural sensitivity were higher than for children with average abilities.

In a study focused on American university students, Hutchison and Gerstein (2016) highlighted that women presented greater recognition of emotions in facial expressions compared to men, a finding that was not affected by previous experience of international travel. However, Wester et al. (2002) cautioned that these differences may be due to situational influences rather than innate gender-related characteristics.

4.2.2. Intercultural Attitudes and Engagement

The relationship between gender and attitudes towards cultural diversity has also been extensively studied. Solhaug and Kristensen (2020), in their analysis of Danish and Norwegian high school students, identified higher levels of empathy and intercultural awareness in women, which could be related to a greater predisposition towards inclusive citizenship. Similarly, Liu (2022) observed that women, in the context of Chinese bilingual students, showed higher scores in engagement and respect for cultural differences, associated with greater affection and patience.

In the Korean context, Chang (2023) validated scales of intercultural sensitivity and respect for diversity, finding that women excelled in factors such as participation in interaction and trust in these dynamics. On the other hand, Filipović and Jurišić (2024) presented a different case: in a group of religious education teachers in Croatia, men scored higher in ethnorelative attitudes, while women showed greater awareness of the importance of minority languages.

4.2.3. Gender as a Non-Determining Factor in the ICC

However, a considerable number of studies did not find a significant influence of gender on the development of ICC. For example, Saricoban and Oz (2014) analyzed future English teachers and concluded that gender did not significantly influence ICC levels. Similarly, Eren (2023), after implementing an intercultural training program through telecollaboration, did not identify differences between men and women in the development of competence. Uyen et al. (2024), in a study with Vietnamese students, also concluded that gender did not impact perceived levels of intercultural competence in key dimensions such as knowledge, skills, attitudes and awareness.

4.2.4. Final Considerations in Relation to Gender

The results reviewed show that although some studies highlight gender differences in specific components of the ICC, others refute its determining influence. This heterogeneity in the findings suggests that the impact of gender may be conditioned by external factors, such as previous intercultural experiences, educational and cultural contexts and the methodologies employed. It is, therefore, crucial to approach this issue with caution, avoiding generalizing conclusions and promoting research that considers the interactions between gender and other contextual variables to better understand their impact on ICC development.

4.3. Ethnicity and Its Relevance in Intercultural Teacher Training

The increase in ethnic and cultural diversity in universities, both among the student body and the faculty member, has highlighted the importance of ethnicity in the development of intercultural competencies. This context underscores the need to train future teachers capable of effectively managing diversity in the classroom and promoting cultural inclusion.

4.3.1. Interethnic Interaction and Intercultural Sensitivity

Inter-ethnic interaction inside and outside the classroom plays a key role in the development of culturally competent professionals. Tamam and Krauss (2017) analyzed this relationship in a multiethnic and multicultural university in Malaysia, concluding that contact between students from different ethnic backgrounds contributes significantly to the development of intercultural sensitivity. The findings suggest that such interactions not only strengthen intercultural communication skills but also promote greater openness to cultural diversity and deeper mutual understanding.

4.3.2. Migrant Origin and Attitudes Towards Diversity

The migrant origin of future teachers is another key factor in their intercultural development. Syring et al. (2019) found that teacher-training students with a migrant background tend to have more positive attitudes towards social and ethnic heterogeneity. These students showed higher levels of intrinsic motivation, less predisposition to negative emotions, and more developed intercultural competence compared to their peers without a migratory background.

For their part, Costa et al. (2023) examined how migrant background influences teachers’ intercultural attitudes, beliefs and sensitivity, as well as their enthusiasm for teaching in multicultural classrooms. These findings highlight the importance of integrating training strategies that consider the previous experiences of future teachers, recognizing the cultural capital provided by those who come from migrant contexts or ethnic minorities.

4.3.3. Equal Opportunities in Intercultural Education

The available evidence suggests that ethnicity and migrant origin significantly influence the development of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). Filipović and Jurišić (2024) emphasize the need to ensure equal opportunities in intercultural education for men and women, regardless of their ethnicity. These conclusions call for the design of educational policies that promote inclusion and equity, ensuring that both students and teachers have access to resources and opportunities to fully develop their ICC.

4.3.4. Final Considerations

The analysis of the relevance of ethnicity in intercultural teacher training shows the importance of interethnic interactions and migratory experiences in the development of intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communicative competence. However, these findings also reveal the need to implement inclusive strategies that address structural inequalities and value the contributions of ethnic diversity in higher education. This approach is crucial to train teachers capable of responding to the challenges of multiculturalism in the classroom and promoting truly inclusive education.

4.4. Faculty Members and the Development of Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)

The role of academics in initial teacher training is crucial for the development of intercultural communicative competence (ICC), especially in contexts of increasing cultural diversity in universities. Recent studies have investigated how factors such as gender, ethnicity and teaching competencies impact the training and performance of future teachers in multicultural contexts.

4.4.1. Cultural Representation in the Faculty Member

The presence of academics who share cultural or ethnic characteristics with students from underrepresented groups can promote positive learning. Hagan et al. (2016) highlight that these academics not only act as role models (Maldonado et al., 2024; Schneider & Preckel, 2017) but also contribute to counteracting the high dropout rates faced by these students (Stock & Ron, 2023). In addition, in conventional settings, culturally diverse teachers broaden their students’ pedagogical perspectives, helping to reduce biases and stereotypes (Petersen et al., 2023).

The positive impact of a diverse faculty member is not limited to underrepresented students; it is also observed in the psychological well-being and academic success of students in general, underscoring the importance of promoting inclusive university environments (Stock & Ron, 2023).

4.4.2. Gender of the Faculty Member and Its Influence on Learning

The gender of the teaching staff also plays an important role in the development of academic competencies. The Korean Institute of Educational Development revealed that the presence of female academics improves the quality of education and the performance of female students (Choe, 2023). Similarly, Carrell et al. (2010) showed that teacher gender influences female students’ performance in disciplines such as mathematics and science, increasing the likelihood that women will continue to study these areas in the future.

However, research such as that by Wijesingha and Ramos (2017) highlights the significant disparities in the working conditions of female academics from minority groups compared to their male counterparts. These differences are reflected in higher teaching and mentoring burdens for women, which affects their productivity and human capital.

4.4.3. Reflective Practice and Initial Teacher Training

The development of ICC in initial teacher-training students requires more than simple exposure to intercultural contexts. Gedik-Bal (2023) emphasizes that academics should take an active role in guiding students through reflective practice, helping them to positively value diversity and develop critical thinking. This approach helps future teachers to integrate an intercultural vision into their pedagogical practices.

4.4.4. Teaching Competencies and Its Impact on Teacher Training

The teaching competencies of the faculty member have a direct impact on initial teacher training, especially when students have limitations in their previous preparation. Rodríguez-Ponce and Fleet (2020) point out that academics are the reference standard that influences the performance of future teachers, particularly in contexts where academics have the responsibility for the comprehensive education of students.

4.4.5. Final Considerations

This evidence underscores the importance of having a diverse and well-prepared faculty member for the development of the ICC in future teachers. However, it also highlights the structural inequalities faced by academics from minority groups. This panorama reinforces the need to design educational policies that promote equitable working conditions and inclusive strategies in ITT.

4.5. Strategies for the Development of Intercultural Communicative Competence

The development of ICC in higher education results from an interactive and circular process between attitudes, knowledge and skills (Papageorgiou et al., 2023). This process can be influenced by formal and informal learning programs, vocational training and intercultural experiences, both face-to-face and technology-mediated. Likewise, elements such as art; interaction with people diverse in terms of ethnicity, age and religion; and international academic exchanges have been shown to have a positive impact on ICC (Khukhlaev et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2023).

4.5.1. Academic Exchanges and Experiential Learning

Intercultural interaction, whether through academic exchange programs or through direct experiences with other cultures, is one of the most recognized strategies for the development of ICC. For example, Gedik-Bal (2023) highlights that life abroad offers ideal conditions for acquiring intercultural communication skills, although he warns that these interactions must be complemented with critical monitoring by trainers who guide students’ reflection on their learning and their appreciation of diversity.

A prominent example is the study by Dutra and Ferreira (2024), who analyzed the impact of teletandem in the ICC of American and Brazilian students. Through the elaboration of weekly blog writings, the students reflected on their cultural experiences, showing significant advances in skills such as intercultural understanding, cultural adaptation, and the construction of equivalences between cultural phenomena.

4.5.2. Curricular Integration of ICC Strategies

Incorporating the specific components of the ICC into curricula has proven to be an effective strategy. Juliastuti et al. (2023) implemented an English literature-based model (ICC-EL) in a group of students, concluding that this approach contributed significantly to the development of ICC skills. Similarly, Thongpan and Thumawongsa (2023) compared the performance of Thai and international teachers in terms of ICC, suggesting that interaction with international colleagues and students, as well as the use of social media, favor the development of intercultural competencies.

4.5.3. Duration of Intercultural Experiences

The duration of intercultural experiences is a debated factor in the development of ICC. Kohli Bagwe and Haskollar (2020) argue that prolonged exposure to cross-cultural environments fosters the development of communication skills. However, Vande Berg et al. (2009) point out the importance of implementing interventions after exchange programs to consolidate learning, suggesting that the duration is not enough, but the quality and structure of the experiences.

4.5.4. Role of Technology and Mediated Learning

Technology has also emerged as a key resource for fostering ICC. Strategies such as teletandem, which combines language practice and cultural interaction, have proven to be effective not only in language development but also in building intercultural skills (Dutra & Ferreira, 2024). These experiences, being structured and intentional, allow students to reflect on their cultural identity and that of others, enriching their communicative competence.

4.5.5. Reflection and Guided Practice

The role of trainers in guiding the development of the ICC is crucial. According to Gedik-Bal (2023), trainers should teach students to reflect on their learning and to value diversity positively. This guided practice allows future teachers to integrate intercultural competencies into their pedagogical methods, ensuring a more inclusive approach in their classrooms.

4.5.6. Final Considerations

Effective strategies for the development of ICC in ITT require intentional design that combines direct experiences of intercultural interaction, formal and informal learning and reflective monitoring of learnings. In addition, the integration of technological tools and the implementation of interventions after cultural exchanges reinforce the impact of these experiences, promoting teacher training capable of responding to the challenges of multiculturalism in education.

5. Discussion

The present study examined the interaction between gender, ethnic identity and the teaching competencies of the faculty member in the development of ICC in ITT, also considering the particularities in homoglossic contexts. The results showed that ethnic identity, understood as a dynamic construction, occupies a central role in the formation of the ICC. This is not reduced to a fixed category but is developed through reflective processes that allow future teachers to become aware of their cultural positioning and understand the differences inherent in multicultural and diatopic contexts. This finding highlights the relevance of structured and guided intercultural experiences, which facilitate appreciation and respect for diversity, even in situations where participants share a common language. The ICC, in this case, expands towards pragmatic adaptation and understanding of divergent cultural norms within the same language.

Gender-related results show inconsistencies, as reported by previous studies. Research such as that by Novikova et al. (2020) and Liu (2022) highlights that women tend to have greater cultural sensitivity, empathy, and skills to recognize emotions, characteristics that can facilitate the development of ICC. However, other studies such as that of Eren (2023) suggest that gender does not directly influence the development of ICC, which can be explained by the interaction of contextual and structural factors, as well as opportunities for intercultural exposure. These differences highlight the importance of more homogeneous methodological approaches and intersectional analyses that allow exploring how gender interacts with other factors such as ethnic identity and social conditions in teacher education.

The teaching competencies of the faculty member emerged as a critical factor in the development of the ICC. Teachers who combine a high pedagogical preparation with a reflective approach are essential to guide students in the construction of intercultural skills. This role is even more relevant in contexts where diatopic and pragmatic variations can generate misunderstandings, as occurs in homoglossic migration. Rodríguez-Ponce and Fleet (2020) argue that academics are not only role models for future teachers but should also promote practices that positively value diversity. However, research such as that by Wijesingha and Ramos (2017) highlights that structural inequalities within the faculty member, especially in relation to minority academics, limit their ability to contribute effectively to this development. These disparities underscore the need to ensure fair working conditions and to incorporate intercultural training into teachers’ professional development.

In a global context marked by diversity and interconnectedness, training in ICC is presented as an essential tool not only to improve pedagogical practice but also to face global challenges such as inequality, cultural conflicts and environmental crises. Deardorff (2009) argues that the ultimate goal of intercultural communication is to ensure collaboration and human survival through mutual respect and joint problem-solving. From this perspective, the results of this study acquire an ethical and social dimension, reinforcing the importance of higher education institutions committing to the development of intercultural competencies among their students and academics. This commitment not only contributes to the formation of global citizens but also strengthens education systems by aligning with targets such as Sustainable Development Goal 4, which focused on ensuring inclusive, equitable and quality education.

Despite the contributions of this study, the lack of consensus in the conceptualization of IC and ICC presents itself as a significant challenge. Definitions of these concepts vary considerably across cultural, disciplinary and linguistic contexts, making it difficult to compare and consolidate findings. While some models, such as Byram’s, focus on language skills in second-language contexts, others take broader approaches that include pragmatic and attitudinal aspects in homoglossic contexts. This theoretical and methodological variability highlights the need to move towards more integrative definitions that consider both linguistic and cultural competencies, especially in situations where the common language does not guarantee effective interaction due to underlying cultural differences.

This study has important limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. The diversity in methodological approaches and cultural contexts of the studies reviewed could have influenced the comparability of the findings. In addition, the long-term effects of training strategies on the development of the ICC were not assessed, leaving a gap in the understanding of its sustainability. Finally, although multiple factors were discussed, the specific interactions between gender, ethnic identity and faculty competencies require further analysis to fully understand their impact on intercultural teacher education.

6. Conclusions

The development of intercultural communicative competence in initial teacher training is a dynamic process that requires a reflexive integration of attitudes, knowledge and skills. This study highlights that ethnic identity, as a flexible construct mediated by critical reflection, plays an essential role in intercultural interaction, even in homoglossic contexts. Although gender showed mixed results in its influence on ICC, it clearly needs to be analyzed in combination with other variables such as context and learning opportunities. Likewise, the teaching competencies of the faculty member, in terms of diversity and reflective capacity, is decisive in promoting meaningful and culturally inclusive learning.

In practical terms, it is recommended that educational institutions integrate structured reflective processes, technological tools and intercultural experiences into initial teacher-training programs. These elements, accompanied by policies that promote labor equity and intercultural training of teachers, can maximize the impact on the development of the ICC and, therefore, on the quality of education.

Finally, the lack of consensus in the conceptualization of IC and ICC represents a challenge that needs to be addressed in future research. The design of integrative theoretical frameworks and standardized measurement instruments will allow a more solid understanding of these competencies and their impact on educational contexts. By moving in this direction, it will be possible to develop more effective training strategies that respond to the challenges of cultural diversity in a globalized world.