The Effectiveness of a Low Glycemic Index/Load Diet on Cardiometabolic, Glucometabolic, and Anthropometric Indices in Children with Overweight or Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Inclusion Criteria
2.2. Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Search Strategy
2.4. Study Selection
2.5. Data Extraction
2.6. Risk of Bias Assessment
2.7. Data Analysis
2.8. Quality of Evidence
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Included Studies
3.2. Primary Outcomes
3.3. Secondary Outcomes
3.3.1. Adiposity Markers
3.3.2. Cardiometabolic Markers
3.4. Quality of the Included Studies
3.5. Grade Assessment
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Skinner, A.C. Cardiometabolic Risks and Severity of Obesity in Children and Young Adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 373, 1307–1317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Whitaker, R.C.; Wright, J.A.; Pepe, M.S.; Seidel, K.D.; Dietz, W.H. Predicting Obesity in Young Adulthood from Childhood and Parental Obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997, 10, 204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Juonala, M.; Magnussen, C.G.; Berenson, G.S.; Venn, A.; Burns, T.L.; Sabin, M.A.; Srinivasan, S.R.; Daniels, S.R.; Davis, P.H.; Chen, W.; et al. Childhood Adiposity, Adult Adiposity, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365, 1876–1885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Friedemann, C.; Heneghan, C.; Mahtani, K.; Thompson, M.; Perera, R.; Ward, A.M. Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Healthy Children and Its Association with Body Mass Index: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. BMJ 2012, 345, e4759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hamilton, D.; Dee, A.; Perry, I.J. The Lifetime Costs of Overweight and Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence: A Systematic Review. Obes. Rev. 2018, 19, 452–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dabas, A.; Seth, A. Prevention and Management of Childhood Obesity. Indian J. Pediatr. 2018, 85, 546–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ho, M.; Garnett, S.P.; Baur, L.A.; Burrows, T.; Stewart, L.; Neve, M.; Collins, C. Impact of Dietary and Exercise Interventions on Weight Change and Metabolic Outcomes in Obese Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials. JAMA Pediatr. 2013, 167, 759–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Psaltopoulou, T.; Tzanninis, S.; Ntanasis-Stathopoulos, I.; Panotopoulos, G.; Kostopoulou, M.; Tzanninis, I.G.; Tsagianni, A.; Sergentanis, T.N. Prevention and Treatment of Childhood and Adolescent Obesity: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses. World J. Pediatr. 2019, 15, 350–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Queiroz, K.C.; Novato Silva, I.; de Cássia Gonçalves Alfenas, R. Influencia Del Indice Glicémico y La Carga Glucémica de La Dieta En El Control Glucémico de Niños y Adolescentes Diabéticos. Nutr. Hosp. 2012, 27, 510–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brand, J.C.; Colagiuri, S.; Crossman, S.; Allen, A.; Roberts, D.C.K.; Truswell, A.S. Low-Glycemic Index Foods Improve Long-Term Glycemic Control in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1991, 14, 95–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ni, C.; Jia, Q.; Ding, G.; Wu, X.; Yang, M. Low-Glycemic Index Diets as an Intervention in Metabolic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2022, 14, 307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gilbertson, H.R.; Brand-Miller, J.C.; Thorburn, A.W.; Evans, S.; Chondros, P.; Werther, G.A. The Effect of Flexible Low Glycemic Index Dietary Advice versus Measured Carbohydrate Exchange Diets on Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001, 24, 1137–1143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schwingshackl, L.; Hobl, L.P.; Hoffmann, G. Effects of Low Glycaemic Index/Low Glycaemic Load vs. High Glycaemic Index/High Glycaemic Load Diets on Overweight/Obesity and Associated Risk Factors in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutr. J. 2015, 14, 87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. Syst. Rev. 2021, 10, 105906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Body Mass Index-for-Age (BMI-for-Age). Available online: https://www.who.int/toolkits/child-growth-standards/standards/body-mass-index-for-age-bmi-for-age (accessed on 20 November 2022).
- Cole, T.J. The Development of Growth References and Growth Charts. Ann. Hum. Biol. 2012, 39, 382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cole, T.J.; Lobstein, T. Extended International (IOTF) Body Mass Index Cut-Offs for Thinness, Overweight and Obesity. Pediatr. Obes. 2012, 7, 284–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. BMJ 2009, 339, 332–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ouzzani, M.; Hammady, H.; Fedorowicz, Z.; Elmagarmid, A. Rayyan-a Web and Mobile App for Systematic Reviews. Syst. Rev. 2016, 5, 210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glycemic Load–High and Low Glycemic Loads. Available online: https://www.diabetes.co.uk/diet/glycemic-load.html (accessed on 18 October 2022).
- Higgins, J.P.T.; Altman, D.G.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Jüni, P.; Moher, D.; Oxman, A.D.; Savović, J.; Schulz, K.F.; Weeks, L.; Sterne, J.A.C. The Cochrane Collaboration’s Tool for Assessing Risk of Bias in Randomised Trials. BMJ 2011, 343, d5928. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Higgins, J.P.T.; Thompson, S.G.; Spiegelhalter, D.J. A Re-Evaluation of Random-Effects Meta-Analysis. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. A Stat. Soc. 2009, 172, 137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Veroniki, A.A.; Jackson, D.; Viechtbauer, W.; Bender, R.; Bowden, J.; Knapp, G.; Kuss, O.; Higgins, J.P.; Langan, D.; Salanti, G. Methods to Estimate the Between-Study Variance and Its Uncertainty in Meta-Analysis. Res. Synth. Methods 2016, 7, 55–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Higgins, J.P.; Green, S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [Updated March 2011]; The Cochrane Collaboration: London, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Egger, M.; Smith, G.D.; Schneider, M.; Minder, C. Bias in Meta-Analysis Detected by a Simple, Graphical Test. BMJ 1997, 315, 629–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Guyatt, G.; Oxman, A.D.; Akl, E.A.; Kunz, R.; Vist, G.; Brozek, J.; Norris, S.; Falck-Ytter, Y.; Glasziou, P.; Debeer, H.; et al. GRADE Guidelines: 1. Introduction-GRADE Evidence Profiles and Summary of Findings Tables. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2011, 64, 383–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dorenbos, E.; Drummen, M.; Adam, T.; Rijks, J.; Winkens, B.; Martínez, J.A.; Navas-Carretero, S.; Stratton, G.; Swindell, N.; Stouthart, P.; et al. Effect of a High Protein/Low Glycaemic Index Diet on Insulin Resistance in Adolescents with Overweight/Obesity—A PREVIEW Randomized Clinical Trial. Pediatr. Obes. 2021, 16, e12702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Casazza, K.; Cardel, M.; Dulin-Keita, A.; Hanks, L.J.; Gower, B.A.; Newton, A.L.; Wallace, S. Reduced Carbohydrate Diet to Improve Metabolic Outcomes and Decrease Adiposity in Obese Peripubertal African American Girls. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2012, 54, 336–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Iannuzzi, A.; Licenziati, M.R.; Vacca, M.; De Marco, D.; Cinquegrana, G.; Laccetti, M.; Bresciani, A.; Covetti, G.; Iannuzzo, G.; Rubba, P.; et al. Comparison of Two Diets of Varying Glycemic Index on Carotid Subclinical Atherosclerosis in Obese Children. Heart Vessels 2009, 24, 419–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kirk, S.; Brehm, B.; Saelens, B.E.; Woo, J.G.; Kissel, E.; D’Alessio, D.; Bolling, C.; Daniels, S.R. Role of Carbohydrate Modification in Weight Management among Obese Children: A Randomized Clinical Trial. J. Pediatr. 2012, 161, 320–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kong, A.P.; Choi, K.C.; Chan, R.S.; Lok, K.; Ozaki, R.; Li, A.M.; Ho, C.S.; Chan, M.H.; Sea, M.; Henry, C.J.; et al. A Randomized Controlled Trial to Investigate the Impact of a Low Glycemic Index (GI) Diet on Body Mass Index in Obese Adolescents. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mirza, N.M.; Palmer, M.G.; Sinclair, K.B.; McCarter, R.; He, J.; Ebbeling, C.B.; Ludwig, D.S.; Yanovski, J.A. Effects of a Low Glycemic Load or a Low-Fat Dietary Intervention on Body Weight in Obese Hispanic American Children and Adolescents: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 97, 276–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramon-Krauel, M.; Salsberg, S.L.; Ebbeling, C.B.; Voss, S.D.; Mulkern, R.V.; Apura, M.M.; Cooke, E.A.; Sarao, K.; Jonas, M.M.; Ludwig, D.S. A Low-Glycemic-Load versus Low-Fat Diet in the Treatment of Fatty Liver in Obese Children. Child. Obes. 2013, 9, 252–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rouhani, M.H.; Kelishadi, R.; Hashemipour, M.; Esmaillzadeh, A.; Azadbakht, L. The Effect of Low Glycemic Index Diet on Body Weight Status and Blood Pressure in Overweight Adolescent Girls: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2013, 7, 385–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rouhani, M.H.; Kelishadi, R.; Hashemipour, M.; Esmaillzadeh, A.; Azadbakht, L. The Effect of an Energy Restricted Low Glycemic Index Diet on Blood Lipids, Apolipoproteins and Lipoprotein (a) among Adolescent Girls with Excess Weight: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Lipids 2013, 48, 1197–1205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rouhani, M.H.; Kelishadi, R.; Hashemipour, M.; Esmaillzadeh, A.; Surkan, P.J.; Keshavarz, A.; Azadbakht, L. The Impact of a Low Glycemic Index Diet on Inflammatory Markers and Serum Adiponectin Concentration in Adolescent Overweight and Obese Girls: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Horm. Metab. Res. 2016, 48, 251–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Visuthranukul, C.; Sirimongkol, P.; Prachansuwan, A.; Pruksananonda, C.; Chomtho, S. Low-Glycemic Index Diet May Improve Insulin Sensitivity in Obese Children. Pediatr Res 2015, 78, 567–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ebbeling, C.B.; Leidig, M.M.; Sinclair, K.B.; Hangen, J.P.; Ludwig, D.S. A Reduced-Glycemic Load Diet in the Treatment of Adolescent Obesity. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2003, 157, 773–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Papadaki, A.; Linardakis, M.; Larsen, T.M.; Van Baak, M.A.; Lindroos, A.K.; Pfeiffer, A.F.H.; Martinez, J.A.; Handjieva-Darlenska, T.; Kunesová, M.; Holst, C.; et al. The Effect of Protein and Glycemic Index on Children’s Body Composition: The DiOGenes Randomized Study. Pediatrics 2010, 126, e1143–e1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jebeile, H.; Kelly, A.S.; O’Malley, G.; Baur, L.A. Obesity in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Causes, Assessment, and Management. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022, 10, 351–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Miguel-Etayo, P.; Bueno, G.; Garagorri, J.M.; Moreno, L.A. Interventions for Treating Obesity in Children. World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 2013, 108, 98–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brand-Miller, J.C.; Holt, S.H.A.; Pawlak, D.B.; McMillan, J. Glycemic Index and Obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, S281–S285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ludwig, D.S. The Glycemic Index: Physiological Mechanisms Relating to Obesity, Diabetes, and Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA 2002, 287, 2414–2423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jenkins, D.J.A.; Wolever, T.M.S.; Taylor, R.H.; Barker, H.; Fielden, H.; Baldwin, J.M.; Bowling, A.C.; Newman, H.C.; Goff, D.V. Glycemic Index of Foods: A Physiological Basis for Carbohydrate Exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1981, 34, 362–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomas, D.E.; Elliott, E.J.; Baur, L. Low Glycaemic Index or Low Glycaemic Load Diets for Overweight and Obesity. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2007, 2007, CD005105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Juanola-Falgarona, M.; Salas-Salvadó, J.; Ibarrola-Jurado, N.; Rabassa-Soler, A.; Díaz-López, A.; Guasch-Ferré, M.; Hernández-Alonso, P.; Balanza, R.; Bulló, M. Effect of the Glycemic Index of the Diet on Weight Loss, Modulation of Satiety, Inflammation, and Other Metabolic Risk Factors: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 100, 27–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pereira, E.V.; de Costa, J.A.; Alfenas, R.d.C.G. Effect of Glycemic Index on Obesity Control. Arch. Endocrinol. Metab. 2015, 59, 245–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Perin, L.; Camboim, I.G.; Lehnen, A.M. Low Glycaemic Index and Glycaemic Load Diets in Adults with Excess Weight: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Clinical Trials. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 2022, 35, 1124–1135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zafar, M.I.; Mills, K.E.; Zheng, J.; Peng, M.M.; Ye, X.; Chen, L.L. Low Glycaemic Index Diets as an Intervention for Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Obes. Rev. 2019, 20, 290–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gow, M.L.; Ho, M.; Lister, N.B.; Garnett, S.P. Dietary Interventions in the Treatment of Paediatric Obesity. Pediatr. Obes. 2018, 20, 271–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ge, L.; Sadeghirad, B.; Ball, G.D.C.; da Costa, B.R.; Hitchcock, C.L.; Svendrovski, A.; Kiflen, R.; Quadri, K.; Kwon, H.Y.; Karamouzian, M.; et al. Comparison of Dietary Macronutrient Patterns of 14 Popular Named Dietary Programmes for Weight and Cardiovascular Risk Factor Reduction in Adults: Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of Randomised Trials. BMJ 2020, 369, m696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Callo Quinte, G.; Barros, F.; Gigante, D.P.; de Oliveira, I.O.; dos Santos Motta, J.V.; Horta, B.L. Overweight Trajectory and Cardio Metabolic Risk Factors in Young Adults. BMC Pediatr. 2019, 19, 75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McPhee, P.G.; Singh, S.; Morrison, K.M. Childhood Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Working Toward Solutions. Can. J. Cardiol. 2020, 36, 1352–1361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Rougemont, A.; Normand, S.; Nazare, J.-A.; Skilton, M.R.; Sothier, M.; Vinoy, S.; Laville, M.; Lyon, C.B. Beneficial Effects of a 5-Week Low-Glycaemic Index Regimen on Weight Control and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Overweight Non-Diabetic Subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 2007, 98, 1288–1298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McMillan-Price, J.; Petocz, P.; Atkinson, F.; O’Neill, K.; Samman, S.; Steinbeck, K.; Caterson, I.; Brand-Miller, J. Comparison of 4 Diets of Varying Glycemic Load on Weight Loss and Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in Overweight and Obese Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch. Intern. Med. 2006, 166, 1466–1475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Øverby, N.C.; Sonestedt, E.; Laaksonen, D.E.; Birgisdottir, B.E. Dietary Fiber and the Glycemic Index: A Background Paper for the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012. Food Nutr. Res. 2013, 57, 20709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Radulian, G.; Rusu, E.; Dragomir, A.; Posea, M. Metabolic Effects of Low Glycaemic Index Diets. Nutr. J. 2009, 8, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Agustin, L.S.; Franceschi, S.; Jenkins, J.D.A.; Kendall, C.W.C.; La Vecchia, C. Glycemic Index in Chronic Disease: A Review. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56, 1049–1071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jenkins, D.J.A.; Kendall, C.W.C.; Augustin, L.S.A.; Franceschi, S.; Hamidi, M.; Marchie, A.; Jenkins, A.L.; Axelsen, M. Glycemic Index: Overview of Implications in Health and Disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 266S–273S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Armeno, M.L.; Krochik, A.G.; Mazza, C.S. Evaluation of Two Dietary Treatments in Obese Hyperinsulinemic Adolescents. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 24, 715–722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, A.M.Y.; Wellberg, E.A.; Kopp, J.L.; Johnson, J.D. Hyperinsulinemia in Obesity, Inflammation, and Cancer. Diabetes Metab. J. 2021, 45, 285–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armendáriz-Anguiano, A.L.; Jiménez-Cruz, A.; Bacardí-Gascón, M.; Hurtado-Ayala, L. Effect of a Low Glycemic Load on Body Composition and Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) in Overweight and Obese Subjects. Nutr. Hosp. 2011, 26, 170–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurtoglu, S.; Hatipoglu, N.; Mazcoglu, M.; Kendirci, M.; Keskin, M.; Kondolot, M. Insulin Resistance in Obese Children and Adolescents: HOMA–IR Cut–Off Levels in the Prepubertal and Pubertal Periods. J. Clin. Res. Pediatr. Endocrinol. 2010, 2, 100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kelsey, M.M.; Zeitler, P.S. Insulin Resistance of Puberty. Curr. Diabetes Rep. 2016, 16, 64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Memedi, R.; Tasic, V.; Nikolic, E.; Jancevska, A.; Gucev, Z. Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence, Genetic Factors. Pril. (Makedon Akad. Nauk Umet Odd Med. Nauki) 2013, 34, 85–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fleming, P.; Godwin, M. Low-Glycaemic Index Diets in the Management of Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Fam. Pract. 2013, 30, 485–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dwivedi, A.K.; Dubey, P.; Reddy, S.Y.; Clegg, D.J. Associations of Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load with Cardiovascular Disease: Updated Evidence from Meta-Analysis and Cohort Studies. Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 2022, 24, 141–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Denova-Gutiérrez, E.; Huitrón, G.; Huitrón-Bravo, H.; Talavera, J.O.; Castañ, S.; Castañón, C.; Gallegos-Carrillo, K.; Flores, Y.; Salmerón, J.; Salmerón, S. Dietary Glycemic Index, Dietary Glycemic Load, Blood Lipids, and Coronary Heart Disease. J. Nutr. Metab. 2010, 2010, 170680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kyung Jung, M.; Yoo, E.-G. Hypertriglyceridemia in Obese Children and Adolescents. J. Obes. Metab. Syndr. 2018, 27, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chiavaroli, L.; Kendall, C.W.C.; Braunstein, C.R.; Blanco Mejia, S.; Leiter, L.A.; Jenkins, D.J.A.; Sievenpiper, J.L. Effect of Pasta in the Context of Low-Glycaemic Index Dietary Patterns on Body Weight and Markers of Adiposity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials in Adults. BMJ. Open 2018, 8, e019438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LeCheminant, J.D.; Gibson, C.A.; Sullivan, D.K.; Hall, S.; Washburn, R.; Vernon, M.C.; Curry, C.; Stewart, E.; Westman, E.C.; Donnelly, J.E. Comparison of a Low Carbohydrate and Low Fat Diet for Weight Maintenance in Overweight or Obese Adults Enrolled in a Clinical Weight Management Program. Nutr. J. 2007, 6, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rollins, B.Y.; Loken, E.; Savage, J.S.; Birch, L.L. Effects of Restriction on Children’s Intake Differ by Child Temperament, Food Reinforcement, and Parent’s Chronic Use of Restriction HHS Public Access. Appetite 2014, 73, 31–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Couturier, J.; Kimber, M.; Szatmari, P. Efficacy of Family-Based Treatment for Adolescents with Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2013, 46, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Porta, N.; Bonet, C.; Cobo, E. Discordance between Reported Intention-to-Treat and per Protocol Analyses. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2007, 60, 663–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
PICO Acronym Criteria | PICO Items Relevant to Eligibility Criteria |
---|---|
(P) Population | Children with overweight or obesity as defined by WHO growth charts, CDC growth charts, IOTF cut-offs or any official national growth chart |
(I) Intervention | LGI or LGL diet |
(C) Comparator | Any dietary intervention |
(O) Outcomes | BW, BMI, BMI z-score, WC, FM, F%, FBG, Fins, HOMA-IR, TC, LDL-c, HDL-c, TG, SBP, DBP |
First Author (Year) Country | Population | N | N Int. | N Con. | Sex (F/M) | Obesity Criteria | Participant’s Age (Years) | Baseline BMI | Baseline BMI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Int. Group | Con. Group | ||||||||
Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | ||||||||
Casazza et al. [28] (2012) USA | Overweight/Obese AA girls | 26 | 12 | 14 | 26/0 | CDC Growth charts | 9–14 | NS | NS |
Dorenbos et al. [27] (2021) Multicenter | Adolescents with overweight/obesity | 126 | 68 | 58 | 74/52 | IOTF cut-off points | 10–18 | 30.1 (5.1) | 29.3 (4.6) |
Iannuzzi et al. [29] (2009) Italy | Obese children | 26 | 13 | 13 | 14/12 | CDC growth charts | 7–13 | 28.3 (3.2) | 28.4 (3.2) |
Kirk et al. [30] (2012) USA | Obese children | 102 | 35 | 36 | 59/43 | CDC growth charts | 7–12 | 29.2 (3.8) | 29.1 (3.8) |
Kong et al. [31] (2014) China | Obese adolescents | 104 | 52 | 52 | 59/45 | Hong Kong Growth Survey 1993 | 15–18 | 31.6 (4.2) | 30.2 (3.5) |
Mirza et al. [32] (2013) USA | Obese Hispanic children | 113 | 57 | 56 | 55/58 | CDC growth charts | 7–14 | 31.1 (6.4) | 30.03 (4.5) |
Ramon-Krauel et. al. [33] (2013) USA | Obese children with fatty liver | 17 | 8 | 9 | 3/14 | CDC growth charts | 8–17 | 31.3 (5.4) | 34.0 (6.1) |
Rouhani et al. [34,35] (2013) Iran | Obese/Overweight adolescent girls with the same pubertal status | 50 | 25 | 25 | 50/0 | WHO Growth Charts (BMI for age-girls) | 13–18 | 27.9 (2.8) | 28.8 (5.1) |
Rouhani et al. [36] (2016) Iran | Obese/Overweight adolescent girls with the same pubertal status | 50 | 19 | 22 | 50/0 | WHO Growth Charts (BMI for age-girls) | 13–18 | 27.9 (2.8) | 28.8 (5.1) |
Visuntranukul et al. [37] (2015) Thailand | Obese children | 70 | 25 | 27 | 17/35 | IOTF cut-off points | 9–16 | 34.2 (5.8) | 33.1 (6.6) |
First Author, Year | Study Duration (Weeks) | Intervention Type | Energy Restriction Int./Con. | Control Type | Dropout Rate (%) Intervention Group | Dropout Rate (%) Control Group | Macronutrients Int. (Pr/CHO/Fat) | Macronutrients Con. (Pr/CHO/Fat) | GI 3 Int. | GI 3 Con. | GL 3 Int. (g/d) | GL 3 Con. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Casazza et al., 2012 [28] | 16 | SPEC: reduced CHO diet | No/No | STAN: standard CHO | NS 4 | NS | 18/42/40 | 18/55/27 | 57 | 89 | 129 | 255 |
Dorenbos et al., 2021 [27] | 260 | HP/LGI diet | No/No | Moderate protein diet | 63 | 59 | 25/45/30 | 15/55/30 | 50 | 52 | 87 | 89 |
Iannuzzi et al., 2009 [29] | 24 | LGI diet | Yes/Yes | HGI diet | NS | NS | 20–25/50–55/25–30 | 20–25/50–55/25–30 | 60 | 90 | NS | NS |
Kirk et al., 2012 [30] | 48 | RGL diet | Yes/Yes | PC | 13 | 13 | 16/50/34 | 14–52–34 | 49 | 54 | 84 | 83 |
Kong et al., 2014 [31] | 48 | LGI diet | Yes/Yes | Dietary Advice | 34 | 48 | 15–25/45–50/30–35 | 10–20/55–60/25–30 | 75 | 77 | 183 | 211 |
Mirza et al., 2013 [32] | 96 | LGL diet | Yes/Yes | LF diet | 42 | 44 | 20–25/45–50/30–35 | 15–20/55–60/25–30 | 56 | 55 | 87 | 84 |
Ramon-Krauel et al., 2013 [33] | 24 | LGL diet | No/No | LF diet | 12 | 0 | 20–25/40/35–40 | 20–25/55–60/20 | 55 | 60 | 72 | 100 |
Rouhani et al., 2013 [34] | 10 | LGI diet | Yes/Yes | Healthy nutritional recommendation | 24 | 20 | 16–18/53–56/27–30 | 16–18/53–56/27–30 | NS 1 | NS | ||
Rouhani et al., 2013 [35] | 10 | LGI diet | Yes/Yes | Healthy nutritional recommendation | 24 | 20 | 16–18/53–56/27–30 | 16–18/53–56/27–30 | NS 1 | NS | ||
Rouhani et al., 2016 [36] | 10 | LGI diet | Yes/Yes | Healthy nutritional recommendation | 24 | 20 | 16–18/53–56/27–30 | 16–18/53–56/27–30 | NS 1 | NS | ||
Visunthranukul et al., 2015 [37] | 24 | LGI diet | Yes/Yes | Standard Counseling | 29 | 23 | 15–20/50–55/30–35 | 20/55/25 | NS 2 | NS |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kalaitzopoulou, I.; Theodoridis, X.; Kotzakioulafi, E.; Evripidou, K.; Chourdakis, M. The Effectiveness of a Low Glycemic Index/Load Diet on Cardiometabolic, Glucometabolic, and Anthropometric Indices in Children with Overweight or Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Children 2023, 10, 1481. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091481
Kalaitzopoulou I, Theodoridis X, Kotzakioulafi E, Evripidou K, Chourdakis M. The Effectiveness of a Low Glycemic Index/Load Diet on Cardiometabolic, Glucometabolic, and Anthropometric Indices in Children with Overweight or Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Children. 2023; 10(9):1481. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091481
Chicago/Turabian StyleKalaitzopoulou, Ioustini, Xenophon Theodoridis, Evangelia Kotzakioulafi, Kleo Evripidou, and Michail Chourdakis. 2023. "The Effectiveness of a Low Glycemic Index/Load Diet on Cardiometabolic, Glucometabolic, and Anthropometric Indices in Children with Overweight or Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" Children 10, no. 9: 1481. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091481