The Trap of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Italian Adolescents Fare Well at First, Maybe Thanks to Protective Trait Expression
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Intolerance of Uncertainty
1.2. Positivity
1.3. The Present Study
Aims and Hypotheses
- Describing what changes, if any, have occurred in internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and psychological well-being with the first COVID-19 lockdown. We were particularly interested in investigating those psychopathological dimensions that are chiefly associated with the social and scholastic environment (i.e., attention problems, social, scholastic and separation anxiety).
- According to the previous literature, we hypothesized to observe a substantial stagnation in internalizing (H1a), externalizing (H1b), and attention problems (H1c), social anxiety (H1d), and generalized anxiety (H1e) [15,55]. No studies conducted on non-clinical adolescent samples explored these issues in relation to separation anxiety, school anxiety, and psychological well-being, thus we did not make specific predictions.
- Exploring whether Positivity moderated the relationship between IU and internalizing symptoms before and during the COVID-19 lockdown. We chose to focus on internalizing symptoms in light of the literature supporting their association with both IU and Positivity [19,23,26].
- In particular, we hypothesized that IU would positively predict internalizing symptoms at both times (H2) [23,26], and Positivity would negatively predict internalizing symptoms at both times (H3) [19]. Moreover, we also expected sex (H4) [56,57] and age (H5) [58,59] to significantly predict internalizing symptoms at both times, with higher levels more likely in girls and older adolescents.
- We chose to test the same model twice, including the same variables but at different time points, because we had the unique opportunity of comparing the moderating effect of a trait-like disposition before and during the lockdown to observe the lockdown’s effect on trait-like dispositions’ interactions; this enabled us to scrutinize whether and how a simple cognitive and psychopathological system reacts to a major stressor, capitalizing on cognitive resources to produce resilience. This condition offered a unique standpoint that enabled us to investigate the effect of the environment on two cognitive factors that, albeit dispositional, can take different forms and express differently under certain circumstances [28,39,41]. No previous research has focused on this issue, so we did not formulate any specific hypothesis.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Changes in Psychopathological Symptoms and Psychological Well-Being over Time
3.2. Moderation by Positivity on the Relationship between IU and Internalizing Problems Pre and during COVID-19
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Time | Variable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time 1 | 1. IUS-R | - | |||||
2. P Scale | −0.199 * | - | |||||
3. YSR Int. | 0.519 *** | −0.479 *** | - | ||||
Time 3 | 4. IUS-R | 0.565 *** | −0.140 | 0.293 *** | - | ||
5. P Scale | −0.142 | 0.371 *** | −0.326 *** | 0.002 | - | ||
6. YSR Int. | 0.408 *** | −0.410 *** | 0.603 *** | 0.453 *** | −0.295 *** | - |
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T1 (SD) | T2 (SD) | T3 (SD) | F | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
YSR Internalizing problems | 19.37 (9.23) | 18.89 (9.13) | 17.54 (9.06) | 1.95 (2, 266) | 0.145 |
YSR Externalizing problems | 12.76 (7.63) | 11.99 (7.05) | 11.07 (7.12) | 1.87 (2, 266) | 0.156 |
YSR Attention problems | 7.18 (3.40) | 7.01 (3.38) | 6.59 (3.33) | 0.87 (2, 266) | 0.42 |
SAFA Generalized anxiety | 12.04 (6.49) | 11.61 (6.11) | 10.99 (5.19) | 0.24 (2, 266) | 0.78 |
SAFA Social anxiety | 8.92 (4.45) | 8.88 (4.97) | 8.75 (4.73) | 0.122 (2, 266) | 0.88 |
SAFA Separation anxiety | 6.71 (4.40) | 5.98 (4.45) | 6.03 (4.40) | 0.39 (2, 266) | 0.67 |
SAFA School anxiety | 8.74 (5.27) | 8.29 (5.40) | 8.26 (5.40) | 0.51 (2, 266) | 0.60 |
PWB | 52.74 (11.97) | 53.79 (13.51) | 54.21 (17.40) | 0.20 (2, 266) | 0.81 |
95% CI | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | SE | p | Lower | Upper | ΔR2 | |
Model 1 | <0.001 | |||||
Age | 0.016 | 0.623 | 0.825 | −1.094 | 1.37 | |
Sex | 3.194 | 1.452 | 0.03 | 0.321 | 6.067 | |
IUS-R | 0.495 | 0.07 | <0.001 | 0.33 | 0.606 | |
Model 2 | <0.001 | 0.148 | ||||
Age | 0.066 | 0.56 | 0.32 | −0.549 | 1.668 | |
Sex | 2.959 | 1.296 | 0.024 | 0.395 | 5.524 | |
IUS-R | 0.420 | 0.063 | <0.001 | 0.271 | 0.522 | |
P Scale | −0.396 | 0.098 | <0.001 | −0.774 | −0.386 | |
Model 3 | <0.001 | 0.001 | ||||
Age | 0.56 | 0.562 | 0.321 | −0.551 | 1.671 | |
Sex | 3.014 | 1.304 | 0.022 | 0.434 | 5.593 | |
IUS-R | 0.396 | 0.064 | <0.001 | 0.27 | 0.522 | |
P Scale | −0.584 | 0.099 | <0.001 | −0.779 | −0.388 | |
IUS-R × P Scale | −0.006 | 0.011 | 0.591 | −0.028 | 0.016 |
95% CI | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | SE | p | Lower | Upper | ΔR2 | |
Model 1 | <0.001 | |||||
Age | −0.002 | 0.643 | 0.975 | −1.293 | 1.252 | |
Sex | 2.357 | 1.484 | 0.115 | −0.578 | 5.291 | |
IUS-R | 0.449 | 0.067 | <0.001 | 0.258 | 0.523 | |
Model 2 | <0.001 | 0.084 | ||||
Age | −0.012 | 0.61 | 0.874 | −1.304 | 1.110 | |
Sex | 2.082 | 1.409 | 0.142 | −0.705 | 4.868 | |
IUS-R | 0.450 | 0.063 | <0.001 | 0.266 | 0.517 | |
P Scale | −0.290 | 0.102 | <0.001 | −0.606 | −0.203 | |
Model 3 | <0.001 | 0.06 | ||||
Age | −0.169 | 0.586 | 0.774 | −1.327 | 0.99 | |
Sex | 2.576 | 1.358 | 0.06 | −0.111 | 5.263 | |
IUS-R | 0.347 | 0.062 | <0.001 | 0.225 | 0.47 | |
P Scale | −0.501 | 0.101 | <0.001 | −0.701 | −0.3 | |
IUS-R × P Scale | −0.024 | 0.007 | <0.001 | −0.038 | −0.011 |
Hypotheses | Expected Statistical Significance | Expected Sign | Obtained Sign | Supported/Not Supported |
---|---|---|---|---|
H1a | Not significant | Supported | ||
H1b | Not significant | Supported | ||
H1c | Not significant | Supported | ||
H1d | Not significant | Supported | ||
H1e | Not significant | Supported | ||
H2 at T1 | Significant | + | + | Supported |
H3 at T1 | Significant | − | − | Supported |
H4 at T1 | Significant | + | + | Supported |
H5 at T1 | Significant | + | Not supported | |
H2 at T3 | Significant | + | + | Supported |
H3 at T3 | Significant | − | − | Supported |
H4 at T3 | Significant | + | Not Supported | |
H5 at T3 | Significant | + | Not supported |
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Malerba, A.; Iannattone, S.; Casano, G.; Lauriola, M.; Bottesi, G. The Trap of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Italian Adolescents Fare Well at First, Maybe Thanks to Protective Trait Expression. Children 2022, 9, 1631. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111631
Malerba A, Iannattone S, Casano G, Lauriola M, Bottesi G. The Trap of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Italian Adolescents Fare Well at First, Maybe Thanks to Protective Trait Expression. Children. 2022; 9(11):1631. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111631
Chicago/Turabian StyleMalerba, Anna, Sara Iannattone, Giorgia Casano, Marco Lauriola, and Gioia Bottesi. 2022. "The Trap of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Italian Adolescents Fare Well at First, Maybe Thanks to Protective Trait Expression" Children 9, no. 11: 1631. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111631