Impact of Drinking Water Source and Sanitation Facility on Malnutrition Prevalence in Children under Three: A Gender-Disaggregated Analysis Using PDHS 2017–18
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Dependent Variables
2.3. Independent Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Malnutrition Association with the Water Source and Sanitation Facilities
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations of the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drinking Water Source | Sanitation/Toilet Facility Type | ||
---|---|---|---|
Improved | Unimproved | Improved | Unimproved |
Piped water Piped into lodging Piped water into plot/yard Public tap/standpipe Borehole Tube well water Protected spring Rainwater Protected well Filtration plant | Piped to neighbor Unprotected dug well Protected well Tanker truck Unprotected spring Bottled/sachet water Surface water River/stream/lake/dam/canals/pond Cart with small tank Other unimproved | Flush latrine Flush to pit latrine Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system Flush to septic tank Pit toilet latrine Pit latrine with slab Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) Compositing toilet | Pit latrine without a slab or open ditch Bucket toilet Any facility shared with other households Hanging toilet/latrine Flush to somewhere else No facility Facility/stream/field/river/bush Flush, do not know where Other unimproved |
Variables | Categories | F | % |
---|---|---|---|
Sex of Child | Male | 252 | 50.50 |
Female | 247 | 49.50 | |
Age of Child (Months) | 0 to 6 | 69 | 13.83 |
7 to 12 | 60 | 12.02 | |
13 to18 | 62 | 12.42 | |
19 to 24 | 81 | 16.23 | |
25 to 36 | 227 | 45.49 | |
Region | Punjab | 49 | 9.82 |
Sindh | 123 | 24.65 | |
KPK | 77 | 15.43 | |
Balochistan | 124 | 24.85 | |
Gilgit Baltistan | 23 | 4.61 | |
ICT (Capital) | 14 | 2.81 | |
AJK | 26 | 5.21 | |
FATA | 63 | 12.63 | |
Qualification Level of Mother | Illiterate | 365 | 73.15 |
Primary | 48 | 9.62 | |
Middle | 59 | 11.82 | |
High | 27 | 5.41 | |
11–15 | 130 | 26.05 | |
Greater than 15 | 73 | 14.63 | |
Wealth Index | Poorest | 189 | 37.88 |
Poorer | 146 | 29.26 | |
Middle | 74 | 14.83 | |
Richer | 52 | 10.42 | |
Richest | 38 | 7.62 | |
Source of Drinking Water | Unimproved | 132 | 26.45 |
Improved | 367 | 73.55 | |
Had Diarrhea Recently | No | 368 | 73.75 |
Yes | 131 | 26.25 | |
Sanitation Facility Type | Unimproved | 181 | 36.27 |
Improved | 318 | 63.73 |
Model I | Model II | ||
---|---|---|---|
Variables | Categories | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) |
Age of Child (Months) | 0 to 6 months (R) | ||
7–12 months | 1.15 (0.56, 2.36) | 1.13 (0.56, 2.25) | |
13–18 months | 0.80 (0.39, 1.63) | 1.43 (0.72, 2.84) | |
19–24 months | 2.10 ** (1.00, 4.4) | 2.57 *** (1.28, 5.2) | |
25–36 months | 1.93 ** (1.00, 4.4) | 3.87 *** (2.2, 6.78) | |
Region | Punjab (R) | ||
Sindh | 2.89 *** (1.4, 5.85) | 3.15 *** (1.5, 6.45) | |
KPK | 1.66 (0.79, 3.47) | 2.07 ** (0.99, 4.29) | |
Balochistan | 3.03 *** (1.5, 6.33) | 3.44 *** (1.6, 7.47) | |
Gilgit Baltistan | 0.80 (0.29, 2.24) | 0.97 (0.37, 2.55) | |
ICT (Capital) | 1.59 (0.56, 4.58) | 0.58 (0.16, 2.07) | |
AJK | 1.28 (0.44, 3.75) | 1.16 (0.49, 2.77) | |
FATA | 1.26 (0.54, 2.91) | 1.22 (0.55, 2.72) | |
Qualification Level of Mother | Illiterate (R) | ||
Primary | 0.49 ** (0.25, 0.95) | 0.88 (0.45, 1.71) | |
Middle | 1.03 (0.53, 1.98) | 0.53 ** (0.27, 1.04) | |
High | 0.35 (0.15, 0.80) | 0.51 (0.23, 1.17) | |
Wealth Index | Poorest (R) | ||
Poorer | 0.92 (0.52, 1.65) | 0.83 (0.48, 1.46) | |
Middle | 0.60 (0.29, 1.26) | 0.92 (0.46, 1.85) | |
Richer | 0.48 ** (0.22, 1.02) | 0.65 (0.29, 1.47) | |
Richest | 0.33 *** (0.13, 0.81) | 0.48 * (0.20, 1.13) | |
Had Diarrhea Recently | No (R) | ||
Yes | 1.55 * (0.96, 2.50) | 1.48 (0.93, 2.36) | |
Drinking Water Source | Unimproved (R) | ||
Improved | 0.62 ** (0.37, 1.03) | 0.80 (0.49, 1.31) | |
Sanitation Facility | Unimproved (R) | ||
Improved | 1.24 (0.75, 2.03) | 0.64 ** (0.43, 0.95) | |
Overall Significance of the Model | |||
Number of Observations | 497 | 513 | |
LR Chi2 | 90.42 | 96.57 | |
Prob > Chi2 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | |
Pseudo R2 | 0.1313 | 0.1359 |
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Saheed, R.; Shahid, M.; Wang, J.; Qureshi, M.G.; Sun, X.; Bibi, A.; Zia, S.; Tang, K. Impact of Drinking Water Source and Sanitation Facility on Malnutrition Prevalence in Children under Three: A Gender-Disaggregated Analysis Using PDHS 2017–18. Children 2022, 9, 1674. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111674
Saheed R, Shahid M, Wang J, Qureshi MG, Sun X, Bibi A, Zia S, Tang K. Impact of Drinking Water Source and Sanitation Facility on Malnutrition Prevalence in Children under Three: A Gender-Disaggregated Analysis Using PDHS 2017–18. Children. 2022; 9(11):1674. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111674
Chicago/Turabian StyleSaheed, Rafit, Muhammad Shahid, Jun Wang, Madeeha Gohar Qureshi, Xiaoke Sun, Asma Bibi, Sidra Zia, and Kun Tang. 2022. "Impact of Drinking Water Source and Sanitation Facility on Malnutrition Prevalence in Children under Three: A Gender-Disaggregated Analysis Using PDHS 2017–18" Children 9, no. 11: 1674. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111674