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Article

Blockchain Technology in K-12 Computer Science Education?!

by
Rupert Gehrlein
* and
Andreas Dengel
*
Institute for the Didactics of Mathematics and Computer Science, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Informatics 2024, 11(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics11040079
Submission received: 5 June 2024 / Revised: 11 October 2024 / Accepted: 18 October 2024 / Published: 30 October 2024
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The blockchain technology and its applications, such as cryptocurrencies or non-fungible tokens, represent significant advancements in computer science. Alongside its transformative potential, human interaction with blockchain has led to notable negative implications, including cybersecurity vulnerabilities, high energy consumption in mining activities, environmental impacts, and the prevalence of economic fraud and high-risk financial products. Considering the expanding range of blockchain applications, there is interest in exploring its integration into K-12 education. For this purpose, this paper examines existing and documented attempts through a systematic literature review. Although the findings are quantitatively limited, they reveal initial concepts and ideas.

1. Introduction

Blockchain technology and related applications, such as cryptocurrencies [1] and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) [2], have gained significant attention, especially since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic [3]. While the technology and its theoretical foundation were introduced in Satoshi Nakamoto’s seminal Whitepaper in 2008 [4], the full scope and accompanying possibilities were initially underestimated, misunderstood, or just largely unnoticed outside specialized circles. The technology gained prominence through cryptocurrencies, specifically through Bitcoin, which repeatedly disrupted the financial and banking sectors [5]. Today, a growing number of individuals, companies [6], and even entire nations [7] have recognized the potential and engage in using the technology. Non-fungible tokens, as another application of blockchain technology, also garnered significant attention in recent years [8]. The focus here often centered around digital art, and NFTs as a whole faced regular scrutiny. Attention was frequently drawn to “pump-and-dump” schemes, with the darker side of their application taking center stage (e.g., [9,10,11]). However, the positive aspects of NFTs largely went unnoticed. As a form of digital certification, NFTs have the potential to fundamentally alter ownership structures, supply chains, and other digital content.
Amidst the enthusiasm surrounding blockchain technology and its potentials for data storage and economical applications, the negative ecological impacts on our environment and climate [12] are often neglected. However, it is crucial to keep these in mind, especially as the technology becomes more widespread and efforts are made to use it sustainably [13]. Currently, individual blockchains consume as much electricity and fresh water as entire countries, resulting in an equally immense carbon footprint [14]. Critics find in these environmental concerns [15] a straightforward target to downplay the progress in information technology and technology as a whole. In recent years, many blockchains have significantly reduced their resource consumption by transitioning to more efficient consensus mechanisms. Especially when compared to the growing resource demands of widespread AI models and applications, blockchain technology now appears in a more favorable light. However, blockchains must continue to evolve and further decrease their resource requirements to aim for a more environmentally sustainable future.
In addition to the ecological aspects and impacts, it is crucial to consider the prevailing economic aspects. Questions such as “how is money made with blockchain?”, “is investing still worthwhile?”, or “what am I actually buying?” are not only regularly discussed in the media but also leave ample room for misconceptions among potential big and small-scale investors. Particularly in this context, schools can and should serve as a point of contact and source of information for students, as it is foreseeable that technologies and financial products will become more widespread in the upcoming years, thus creating regular points of contact for our students. Schools, in particular, have the unique opportunity not only to educate students about the risks and misconceptions surrounding blockchain technology but also to highlight its advantages and potential future applications. By providing a balanced understanding, they can help students develop informed perspectives on how to engage with and utilize this technology responsibly.
Computer-related studies in higher education have already developed certain approaches for teaching about blockchain technology. Contents comprise, for example, the overall structure of blockchain [16], the current possible usages in several relevant scientific disciplines [17], or the possible future applications [18]. Popular methods include Massive Open Online Courses [19], Serious Games [20], and Simulations [21]. These approaches in higher education are especially important for training qualified professionals. However, due to the high potentials and rising adoption, it can be interesting to take a first look on how technological, economical, ecological, and application-related questions towards blockchain technology could also be integrated in K-12 education, in order to foster students’ understanding of related phenomena in the digital world, news, as well as applications that they might encounter in their everyday life. This paper tries to summarize current approaches to achieve this.

2. Theoretical Background

A blockchain is a decentralized and distributed digital ledger that securely records transactions across a network of computers [22]. It ensures transparency and immutability by linking each block containing transaction data to the previous one [23]. This technology and its progressions are the foundation for various decentralized applications [24]. The generic blockchain architecture comprises six layers [24]:
  • The data layer, which stores transaction records such as block data, chain structure, time stamps, and hash functions.
  • The network layer, which works as distributor of information among the nodes using peer-to-peer networks, propagation, and verification mechanisms.
  • The consensus layer, which incorporates protocols (such as Proof-of-Work and Proof-of-Stake) on how consensus can be achieved without a centralized authority.
  • The incentive layer, which rewards users contributing to the computing power by incorporating economic factors into the chain.
  • On the contract layer, where regulated and auditable contract specifications are established to ensure the smooth operation of the chain.
  • The application layer, which comprises various application codes that provide specific functionalities.
Cryptocurrencies, as digital or virtual currencies utilizing cryptographic techniques for security, have garnered significant attention since the inception of Bitcoin in 2009. Beyond their role as a medium of exchange, cryptocurrencies represent a paradigm shift in monetary systems, challenging traditional banking and financial infrastructures. Bitcoin, the pioneering cryptocurrency, introduced the concept of decentralization, enabling peer-to-peer transactions without the need for intermediaries such as banks or financial institutions [25,26]. Its underlying technology, the blockchain, ensures the integrity and immutability of transactions, fostering trust and transparency within the network.
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) represent a unique application of blockchain technology, enabling the tokenization of digital or physical assets to certify ownership or authenticity [27]. Unlike cryptocurrencies, which are fungible and interchangeable, NFTs are indivisible and possess unique characteristics that distinguish them from one another. This uniqueness makes NFTs particularly suited for representing the ownership of digital artworks, collectibles, virtual real estate, and other digital assets. Each NFT is associated with a verifiable and immutable record on the blockchain, providing irrefutable proof of ownership and authenticity [28]. The emergence of NFTs has sparked a renaissance in digital art and collectibles, empowering creators to monetize their work directly and providing collectors with a secure and transparent marketplace for acquiring and trading digital assets. Additionally, NFTs have applications beyond the realm of art and collectibles, including gaming, intellectual property rights management, and supply chain traceability.
Smart contracts, a cornerstone of blockchain technology, facilitate the automation and execution of contractual agreements without the need for intermediaries [29]. By encoding contractual terms into self-executing code deployed on a blockchain, smart contracts ensure trustless and tamper-proof execution, mitigating the risk of fraud and dispute. These programmable agreements can range from simple transactions, such as token transfers, to complex financial instruments and decentralized applications (DApps). The adoption of smart contracts extends beyond financial services, with applications in areas such as supply chain management, decentralized finance (DeFi), decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs), and governance mechanisms. As the capabilities of smart contracts evolve and interoperability between blockchain platforms improves, the potential for innovative use cases and transformative applications will continue to expand, ushering in a new era of decentralized and automated systems.
The versatility of blockchain technology extends beyond financial transactions. For instance, in the healthcare sector, blockchain can revolutionize the management of medical records. By securely storing patient data on a decentralized ledger, healthcare professionals can access comprehensive and accurate medical histories, ensuring timely and informed decision making. Similarly, governments can utilize blockchain for issuing and managing official documents such as identification cards or driver’s licenses. By leveraging the tamper-proof nature of blockchain, the authenticity and integrity of such documents can be guaranteed, reducing the risk of fraud and identity theft. Overall, the adoption of blockchain technology continues to grow across diverse sectors, offering innovative solutions to complex challenges and reshaping traditional processes and systems. As research and development in this field advance, the possibilities for leveraging blockchain are virtually limitless, promising a future of enhanced efficiency, transparency, and trust in digital ecosystems.

3. Method

3.1. Research Questions

Research questions are utilized to ascertain whether and how blockchain is addressed as a topic in K-12 computer science education. As we aim to structure existing approaches in the form of a topic-specific framework, we decided to use the Dagstuhl triangle [30] as a reference to structure existing approaches. The Dagstuhl triangle is a commonly used educational framework for digital education in various European countries. This framework asks questions regarding the phenomena of the digital world from a technological perspective (“How does it work?”), an application perspective (“How do I use it?”), and a socio-cultural perspective (“What are the effects?”) [31].
The research questions of this paper therefore distinguish between the technological background, user applications, and the economical and ecological perspectives of blockchain:
  • RQ1: What technological aspects of blockchain are taught or mentioned in existing approaches?
  • RQ2: What application uses of blockchain are taught or mentioned in existing approaches?
  • RQ3: What (a) economical and (b) ecological aspects are taught or mentioned?
  • RQ4: In which types of schools and grade levels were the approaches conducted?

3.2. Review Protocol

3.2.1. Data Sources

To find viable literature for our systematic literature review (SLR), we used four popular academic databases:
Web Of Science and Elsevier Science Direct were immediately excluded after the initial search query, as no results were found. Consequently, these databases are not mentioned further in the subsequent course of this study.

3.2.2. Search Strategy

The search strategy significantly influences the results obtained in an SLR. Therefore, to gather potential answers to our research questions, the search terms were carefully selected.
For obtaining answers to RQ1 and RQ2, we initially needed all results related to the topic of the blockchain and its most well-known applications. Consequently, we chose to use “OR” between the relevant search terms: “blockchain”, “crypto*”, “nft”, and “non-fungible”. In the case of “non-fungible”, we opted to exclude “token” as its inclusion was deemed redundant, as it was expected to yield the same results.
As we are interested in the teaching of blockchain technologies in schools, specifically in computer science education. As indicated by RQ1, RQ2, and RQ4, we added two additional specifications to our search term using “AND”. Firstly, we included the most common synonyms for computer science education in our search term, namely “computing education”, “informatics”, and “computer science education”. Secondly, since our focus was on school education rather than, for example, university education, we supplemented our search term with “k-12 education” and “k12 education” (included in two different spellings for better results).
None of the aspects of RQ3 were additionally incorporated into the search term, as doing so would have both reduced the number of results without providing further value to the search term.
Therefore, our final search term was as follows:
  • (”computing education” OR ”informatics” OR ”computer science education”) AND (”blockchain” OR ”crypto*” OR ”nft” OR ”non-fungible”) AND (”k-12 education” OR ”k12 education”)
A more stringent temporal restriction on publications was not applied, given that the number of results was already manageable.

3.2.3. Study Selection

After documenting the search results, we established inclusion criteria (see Table 1) and the exclusion criteria for our findings:

3.2.4. Data Extraction

The search results were transferred to an Excel spreadsheet using a custom-written web crawler. For each publication, the title, authors, and corresponding web link were extracted from the databases and subsequently documented in Excel. The proper execution of the web crawler was verified through both the total number of results and selected random samples, providing an additional layer of assurance.

3.2.5. Data Analysis

Not only was the search term jointly established by the two authors, but the results were also evaluated by both authors. The assessment was conducted independently to minimize the chances of bias. Subsequently, the results of the evaluations were compared and discussed, and the findings were documented collaboratively.

4. Results

The data collection phase of this study was conducted in November 2023. The search term presented in Section 3.2.2 yielded a total of 446 results across the four databases used (cf. Figure 1). Before further examination, based on titles and abstracts, 37 duplicates were initially identified and removed. From the remaining 409 results, a total of 391 articles were excluded based on titles and abstracts. The remaining 18 articles were further investigated according to the predefined exclusion criteria, leading to the removal of an additional 15 articles (with 4 of them being removed due to the paper not focusing on school education and 11 of them because they were not addressing blockchain technology and/or its applications). Ultimately, only three articles conformed to the established inclusion criteria. Subsequently, outside the initial database search, we were able to identify another article. Due to an unusual spelling (’K9-12’), the article evidently could not be retrieved by our search term in the databases.
We considered expanding our search term and/or adjusting our inclusion and exclusion criteria to have the opportunity to examine more results in detail. We decided against this, as it would have led to less precise results; alternatively, we would have adjusted the results directly and thus introduced a bias. Broader criteria would not have led to specific answers to our research questions, and we were specifically interested in the implementation of topics related to blockchain technology, not the implementation of similar topics such as cryptography, databases, or decentralized networks in general.

5. Discussion

The reviewed papers showed a variety of approaches, focuses, and target groups (see Table 2). Most of the papers are still planned studies or studies with a small sample size. However, there are some initial approaches to implementing and creating an initial contact in a school context, albeit rare. Due to the small number of papers identified in this SLR, the discussion is unfortunately correspondingly brief. Nevertheless, all research questions could be answered to some extent, although there is a general need for more concrete teaching approaches in order to enable a comprehensive evaluation.
Choi et al. [32] introduce a blockchain learning game from Kim et al. [33] (the corresponding paper is unfortunately only available in Korean), which is tailored for elementary school students, emphasizing the consensus mechanism of blockchain technology. Through this game, students gain foundational knowledge aligned with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals [34]. Moreover, distinctions between public and private blockchains are made, enriching students’ understanding of blockchain concepts and their real-world applications.
Table 2. Summary of findings from the reviewed papers.
Table 2. Summary of findings from the reviewed papers.
Research QuestionsPapers
Choi et al. [32]Choi et al. [35]Gehrlein and
Dengel [36]		Irudayam and Breitinger [37]
RQ1: Technological Aspects- Consensus mechanism- Blockchain principles and applications- Immutability and decentralized data storage- Hashing, encryption, and block structure
RQ2: Application Uses- Limited insights- Limited insights- Cryptocurrencies, NFTs, and smart contracts- Cryptocurrencies
RQ3a: Economical Aspects- Not addressed- Not addressed- Financial impacts- Not addressed
RQ3b: Ecological Aspects- Not addressed- Not addressed- Environmental impacts- Not addressed
RQ4: Educational Settings- Elementary school level- Elementary to secondary levels, teachers, parents- K-12- High school level
Expanding beyond specific technological aspects, Choi et al. [35] present an ICT education program encompassing blockchain alongside other advanced technologies. Although the program highlights blockchain principles and applications, the lack of concrete examples may hinder comprehensive understanding, particularly for students encountering blockchain concepts for the first time. This highlights the importance of providing practical, real-world applications to enhance learning outcomes.
In a unique approach, Gehrlein and Dengel [36] introduce a board game designed to introduce students to blockchain, cryptocurrencies, and NFTs. By emphasizing core blockchain concepts, such as immutability and decentralized data storage, the game offers tangible experiences that facilitate deeper learning. Furthermore, the incorporation of economic and ecological considerations demonstrates an interdisciplinary approach, enriching the educational experience and fostering a holistic understanding of blockchain’s implications beyond technology.
Irudayam and Breitinger [37] focus on high school students, utilizing a chat application to explore blockchain topics. While the emphasis lies on hashing, encryption, and block structure, fundamental technological aspects essential for understanding blockchain are addressed. However, the exclusion of lower grades may limit the reach of the educational intervention.
Regarding the application uses of blockchain, Choi et al. [32,35] offer limited insights, primarily focusing on technological underpinnings rather than practical applications. In contrast, Gehrlein and Dengel [36] provide brief explanations of cryptocurrencies, NFTs, and smart contracts within their paper. However, specific examples and in-depth explorations of real-world applications are lacking. Irudayam and Breitinger [37] predominantly focus on cryptocurrencies, citing market demand as justification, but they do not delve into broader application scenarios.
While economic and ecological considerations are largely absent in most papers, Gehrlein and Dengel [36] stand out by addressing financial and environmental impacts within their paper. By linking economic aspects (such as finance) and trade and ecological aspects (such as energy consumption and environmental impact to blockchain technology), they provide a holistic perspective that enriches the educational experience and fosters a deeper understanding of blockchain’s implications.
In terms of educational settings, approaches vary widely. Choi et al. [32,35] target elementary to secondary levels, extending outreach to teachers and parents. Gehrlein and Dengel [36] aim for implementation within the K-12 framework, with ongoing curriculum adjustments to align with educational standards. Irudayam and Breitinger [37] exclusively focus on high school students, potentially enabling deeper engagement and specialized instruction.
Overall, the reviewed literature showcases diverse strategies for integrating blockchain education into schools, emphasizing the need for comprehensive content, interdisciplinary perspectives, and adaptability to diverse educational contexts. Further research could explore practical implementations and long-term educational outcomes to refine pedagogical approaches and maximize learning effectiveness.

6. Limitations

An effort was made to impose as few limitations as possible. To achieve this, publications such as [38,39] were used as a guide, and other publications encompassing [40,41] were utilized to proactively address known and common limitations. Despite these efforts, certain potential limitations in the evaluation are inevitable.
One notable limitation is the number of databases examined. Ultimately, we only investigated four databases (as mentioned before, two of the six databases did not return any results for our search term). However, these are considered the most relevant databases in our field of study. The fact that, apart from Google Scholar, SpringerLink, and the ACM Digital Library, few or even no noteworthy results were found in the other databases examined signaled that expanding the scope to additional databases would likely not yield significant results. It is also possible that not all teaching attempts were found by us. Educational materials and teaching experiments are often either not published as scientific articles or not published at all. Consequently, we were unable to find such possible contributions using the methods of an SLR, which does not necessarily mean that they do not exist.
Furthermore, it could have been possible to involve more individuals in the data analysis. Additionally, the inclusion of a person from a different field, not aligned with the authors’ expertise, might have been beneficial to further minimize bias in the results. However, the impact of this additional perspective on generating different or more results remains questionable in our view. Adequate inclusion and exclusion criteria were established, and while some were formulated relatively openly, they also provided limited room for inappropriate articles to influence the results.
Finally, the ultimate number of examined articles can be considered a potential limitation. The initial pool of 446 articles found based on our search term is relatively small for an SLR, and the reduced number of four remaining articles, particularly, may be insufficient for adequately addressing our research questions. However, we perceive this less as a limitation in our research methodology and more as an affirmation that there is a significant need and potential for further research in this field. In an effort to address this research gap, we try to identify potential connections and integration possibilities in existing curricula.

7. Implications

The findings of this study underscore the need for a more comprehensive integration of blockchain technology and its applications into computer science education. In light of the limited research identified, there exists a significant opportunity to contribute to the development of educational strategies that effectively introduce blockchain concepts in K-12 settings.

8. Conclusions and Outlook

In conclusion, this study provides a first impression on the current state of blockchain technology integration in K-12 computer science education. Despite the limited number of identified articles, this research underscores the significance of addressing this gap and highlights the potential benefits of incorporating blockchain concepts into future curricula.
The identified articles, although sparse, offer first insights into potential challenges and opportunities. The limited existing research suggests a pressing need for further exploration and empirical studies to comprehensively understand the dynamics of introducing blockchain technology in educational school settings.
Moving forward, educators, curriculum developers, and researchers must collaborate to develop and implement curricula that align with the technological advancements of the 21st century. Emphasizing both theoretical understanding and practical applications, such curricula can prepare students to navigate the evolving landscape of technology while fostering ethical considerations and a broader understanding of the societal impact of blockchain innovations.
The next step will be to design a first curriculum proposal to test those concepts in real-life school settings. We have already developed teaching materials and will test them in the upcoming months. Interdisciplinary subjects have proven to be highly successful with students in the past, and various schools are increasingly adopting a project-based learning approach. In our view, blockchain technology offers a unique opportunity in this context. It is a widely discussed topic that integrates various disciplines and addresses the high level of ignorance and half-knowledge prevailing among the population. Although the currently worked on possible curriculum and its implementation are still in their infancy, we believe it will have great potential, as it has already been recognized by various universities but is still lacking in schools.
A precise implementation of the curriculum in the school context is still pending and will be investigated by us in a timely manner. It is especially important to adapt the future curriculum with regard to the age of the students and to specify it accordingly for the respective grade levels. This will enable it to be applied in the school setting in line with a spiral curriculum approach. Furthermore, suitable teaching methods will be examined by us, which not only fit the respective topic but also the according grade level.
In summary, the findings of this study show the importance of continued research and collaborative efforts to shape a curriculum that equips students with the knowledge and skills required to engage with and contribute to the ongoing evolution of blockchain technology and our digital world as a whole.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.G. and A.D.; methodology, R.G. and A.D.; validation, R.G. and A.D.; formal analysis, R.G.; investigation, R.G.; resources, R.G.; data curation, R.G.; writing—original draft preparation, R.G.; writing—review and editing, A.D. and R.G.; visualization, R.G.; supervision, A.D.; project administration, R.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to problems of long-term hosting of files on our servers.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Informatics 11 00079 g001
Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram.
Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram.
Informatics 11 00079 g001
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Inclusion Criteria:Exclusion Criteria:
Paper is in EnglishPaper is not in English
Paper is accessible and availablePaper is not accessible or available
Paper is focusing on K-12 school educationPaper is not focusing on K-12 school education
Paper is addressing blockchain technology and/or its applications as a subjectPaper is not addressing blockchain technology and/or its applications as a subject
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Gehrlein, R.; Dengel, A. Blockchain Technology in K-12 Computer Science Education?! Informatics 2024, 11, 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics11040079

AMA Style

Gehrlein R, Dengel A. Blockchain Technology in K-12 Computer Science Education?! Informatics. 2024; 11(4):79. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics11040079

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gehrlein, Rupert, and Andreas Dengel. 2024. "Blockchain Technology in K-12 Computer Science Education?!" Informatics 11, no. 4: 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics11040079

APA Style

Gehrlein, R., & Dengel, A. (2024). Blockchain Technology in K-12 Computer Science Education?! Informatics, 11(4), 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics11040079

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