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Volume 12
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10.3390/separations12060139
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Article

An Optimized Pathway for Nitrate Removal from Aqueous Solution by Environmentally Friendly Calabash Gourd Shell Adsorbent Based on Experimental Design Methodology

by
Goran S. Nikolić
1,*,
Nataša Simonović
1,
Miloš Durmišević
1,
Nada Nikolić
1,
Dragana Marković Nikolić
2,
Milena Nikolić
2,
Grozdanka Bogdanović
3 and
Aleksandar Bojić
4
1
Faculty of Technology, University of Niš, Bulevar Oslobodjenja 124, 16000 Leskovac, Serbia
2
Department of Technological Art Studies, Academy Southern Serbia, 16000 Leskovac, Serbia
3
Technical Faculty in Bor, University of Belgrade, VJ 12, 19210 Bor, Serbia
4
Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Niš, Višegradska 33, 18000 Niš, Serbia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Separations 2025, 12(6), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations12060139
Submission received: 2 May 2025 / Revised: 21 May 2025 / Accepted: 21 May 2025 / Published: 23 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adsorption/Degradation Methods for Water and Wastewater Treatment)
Versions Notes

Abstract

The aim of this research is to optimize the process parameters for nitrate adsorption from aqueous solutions using ammonium modified calabash gourd shell (CGS). Two types of experimental design (DoE) methodology were implemented in the optimization. A full factorial design (FFD) assessed the influence of the main factors on the process response. The efficiency of nitrate adsorption at the predicted optimal conditions by FFD was 78.93%. The study was extended to a central composite design (CCD) within the response surface methodology (RSM) to capture the factors nonlinear effects and optimize the adsorption parameters. The quadratic polynomial model using CCD proved to be useful for understanding the adsorption system’s behavior, locating the optimal process factors, and predicting the adsorption efficiency (R2 > 0.95). The significance of the model terms (A, B, C, D, B2, and C2) is confirmed by F = 74.95 and p < 0.0001. According to the CCD, the optimal adsorption conditions were estimated in the range: initial nitrate concentration 10–20 mg/L, pH 6–7, temperature 20–25 °C, and contact time 25–30 min (desirability 0.996). The predicted and obtained values using FFD and CCD models are very close, which confirms their practical applicability. The repeated test found the nitrate adsorption efficiency (84.9%) using CCD model in the predicted range (80.1–89.6%), which confirms the adequacy and significance of the model. This model could find potential application in real processes for the treatment of nitrate-contaminated water using the environmentally friendly CGS cationic adsorbent.
Keywords: calabash gourd; nitrate adsorption; experimental design; central composite design; full factorial design calabash gourd; nitrate adsorption; experimental design; central composite design; full factorial design

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MDPI and ACS Style

Nikolić, G.S.; Simonović, N.; Durmišević, M.; Nikolić, N.; Marković Nikolić, D.; Nikolić, M.; Bogdanović, G.; Bojić, A. An Optimized Pathway for Nitrate Removal from Aqueous Solution by Environmentally Friendly Calabash Gourd Shell Adsorbent Based on Experimental Design Methodology. Separations 2025, 12, 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations12060139

AMA Style

Nikolić GS, Simonović N, Durmišević M, Nikolić N, Marković Nikolić D, Nikolić M, Bogdanović G, Bojić A. An Optimized Pathway for Nitrate Removal from Aqueous Solution by Environmentally Friendly Calabash Gourd Shell Adsorbent Based on Experimental Design Methodology. Separations. 2025; 12(6):139. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations12060139

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nikolić, Goran S., Nataša Simonović, Miloš Durmišević, Nada Nikolić, Dragana Marković Nikolić, Milena Nikolić, Grozdanka Bogdanović, and Aleksandar Bojić. 2025. "An Optimized Pathway for Nitrate Removal from Aqueous Solution by Environmentally Friendly Calabash Gourd Shell Adsorbent Based on Experimental Design Methodology" Separations 12, no. 6: 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations12060139

APA Style

Nikolić, G. S., Simonović, N., Durmišević, M., Nikolić, N., Marković Nikolić, D., Nikolić, M., Bogdanović, G., & Bojić, A. (2025). An Optimized Pathway for Nitrate Removal from Aqueous Solution by Environmentally Friendly Calabash Gourd Shell Adsorbent Based on Experimental Design Methodology. Separations, 12(6), 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations12060139

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