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Review

Research Progress on the Medicinal and Edible Polygala fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) Plant

by
Chao Wu
*,†,
Xiujiao Zhang
,
Baoyu Liu
and
Hui Tang
*,†
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Phytochemicals and Sustainable Utilization, Guangxi Institute of Botany, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guilin 541006, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Horticulturae 2023, 9(7), 737; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9070737
Submission received: 6 April 2023 / Revised: 31 May 2023 / Accepted: 17 June 2023 / Published: 23 June 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Medicinals, Herbs, and Specialty Crops)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Polygala fallax Hemsl., a species belonging to the genus Polygala and the family Polygalaceae, is primarily distributed in southern China. Wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is currently endangered, but its utilization value has not yet been thoroughly investigated. The present review summarizes the morphological and structural characteristics, wild resource distribution, chemical constituents and pharmacological efficacy, artificial breeding and cultivation techniques, and utilization value of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) to facilitate future studies on the conservation and use of P. fallax Hemsl plants. We conclude that (i) P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is a medicinal and edible plant, and also has eco-economic and ornamental value; (ii) roots are the primary medicinal parts, which contain pharmacologically active compounds such as saponins, flavones, oligosaccharide polyesters, polysaccharides, sterols, organic acids, etc.; and (iii) P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) shows various pharmacological efficacies including anti-inflammatory effects, antivirus effects, antioxidative effects, an immunity-boosting function, hepatic-protective effects, hypolipidemic effect, blood-activating, stasis-eliminating effects, and antitumor, etc. More research on the applications of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) are needed, especially efforts to identify its effective constituents, pharmacological efficacy, quality control, and clinical applications. The use of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) resources should be enhanced, especially the use of the aboveground parts, and the pharmacological efficacy of other chemical constituents, such as flavones and polysaccharides, should be further explored.

1. Introduction

Polygala fallax Hemsl., a species belonging to the genus Polygala (family Polygalaceae), is a shrub or small tree primarily distributed in southern China and Vietnam [1]. In Chinese medicine, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants have been widely used as a tonic and anti-hepatitis drug to treat various chronic and acute diseases [2,3] because of the pharmacological effects, including immune regulation, antioxidant activities, and anti-HBV effects, of this medicinal plant [4,5,6]. To date, several biologically active components, including saponins, sterols, and flavones, which have strong pharmacological activities, have been isolated from the roots or stems of P. fallax Hemsl. plants [7,8]. Additionally, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is edible in the local folklore of Guangxi and thus has been used as a medicinal and edible plant in Guangxi for many years. Thus, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has great utilization value and potential that deserves further exploration.
In recent years, wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has sharply declined due to overexcavation and climate change. However, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has rarely been described systematically, and the public has a poor understanding of and has devoted little attention to this medicinal and edible plant, which leads to (i) insufficient awareness of the need to protect its wild resources and (ii) low productivity and poor quality of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants cultivated under field conditions. To protect and use this medicinal and edible plant resource, we systematically reviewed the research on P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) in terms of its wild resource distribution, morphological and structural characteristics, chemical compounds, pharmacological effects, seedling establishment, and artificial cultivation. In addition, the wild resource status of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants is also discussed to provide guidance for protection, scientific research, and the comprehensive utilization of wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) resources.

2. Survey Methodology

The articles related to P. fallax Hemsl. plants were retrieved via two periodical databases, i.e., the Web of Science and CNKI Chinese periodical full-text database, published over the period of 1980~2023. In total, 215 relevant documents were retrieved using two search terms “黄花倒水莲 (Huang hua dao shui lian)” and “P. fallax Hemsl.”, leaving 67 articles according to the titles, abstracts, and keywords to review the distribution, morphological characteristics, chemical constituents, pharmacological efficacy, propagation, and cultivation of P. fallax Hemsl. systematically. Generally, the roots of P. fallax Hemsl. plants were primarily used for phytochemical characterization. The dried roots of P. fallax Hemsl. plants were powdered and extracted with organic solvents such as ethanol, methanol, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, etc., phytochemicals in the crude extracts were enriched and identified using spectroscopic methods.

3. Distribution of Wild Resources and Habitat Characteristics of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae)

Wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) populations are native to south-central China, southeast China, and parts of Vietnam. In China, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants are distributed in Guangxi, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Hunan, and Fujian provinces, of which Guangxi and Fujian are the two main habitats for wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants [9]. According to the investigation of wild resources, wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants are distributed at altitudes of 300~1200 m, with a higher number being found at altitudes of 500~800 m. In Fujian province, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants are scattered widely and separately and occur patchily but are in high abundance in dense mountain forests and among shrubs in valleys and near streamlets [1]. However, in Guangxi province, wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants grow mostly on soil mountains, while a small section can be found on rocky mountains in southwest and north-central Guangxi [10]. It was speculated that different ecotypes of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) may occur in different regions.
Investigations on the growth of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants on different slope aspects and positions under the forest have shown that P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants show the highest survival rate, plant height, and biomass on semishady slopes and downslopes, followed by shady slopes and midslopes, and the lowest survival and plant growth were observed on sunny slopes and upslopes [11]. According to our latest study, photosynthetically active radiation of approximately 662 µmol m−2 s−1 is suggested for the artificial cultivation of P. fallax Hemsl. plants to obtain both high biomass yield and good quality [8]. Overall, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants are relatively susceptible to adversity and have more stringent habitat requirements. Wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants prefer warm and humid subtropical climates and grow poorly under drought and strong light conditions [8,12], which is why they are mostly distributed on the northern slopes of mountains. Experimentally, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants prefer to grow in deep, moist, loose, and humus-rich soil layers.

4. Morphological and Structural Characteristics of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae)

P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is a shrub or small tree with a height of 1~3 m. Table 1 summarizes the unique morphological characteristics of the roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants, which exhibit distinct morphological features. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate. The flowers are terminal in drooping racemes, and the flowering period is usually from May to August. The capsules are obcordate or round, and the fruiting season is generally from August to December. The whole plant has ornamental value. The roots are the main medicinal parts. The crude medicine is made of a beaded, cylindrical, or spindly root system, with visible small rootlets and a core with the epidermis between thickened parts. The wood is tough, unbreakable, and bumpy. Anatomically, the root cortex and parenchyma cells of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) are rich in fatty oils.
As a common adulterant of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae), Polygala arillata Buch. Ham. can be easily confused with P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). The flowers of P. arillata Buch. Ham occur in a raceme or panicle, the leaves are lanceolate, obovate-lanceolate, or oblong, and the fruits are broad and kidney-shaped. In summary, P. arillata Buch. Ham. is different from P. fallax Hemsl. in the morphology of its flowers, leaves, and fruits (Table 1). On the market, the roots of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) have often been confused with those of Morinda officinalis How. (Rubiaceae). The two plants are similar in root morphology, but M. officinalis How. has a cylindrical root system, with grayish brown, transversely broken and beaded root bark and deep longitudinal grooves on the surface of the wood core. There are massive tightly arranged stone cells in the root cortex and parenchyma cells of M. officinalis How., which are not present in the root system of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). Therefore, a systematic summary of the morphological and structural characteristics of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) can provide new information for verifying the efficacy of associated medicinal materials.

5. Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Efficacy of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae)

Natural products in medicinal plants are the main source of pharmacologically active compounds. To date, 28 saponins, 18 flavones, 14 oligosaccharide polyesters, 9 polysaccharides, 8 sterols, 5 organic acids, and other chemicals such as p-hydroxybenzaldehyde have been reported in P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) (Table 2). Key biologically active components are primarily identified in the extracts of roots and stems in P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). Xu et al. (2003) [10] reported that the major chemical constituents of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) were similar among the different sampling sites but differed significantly among different organs and tissues. Generally, the content of saponins in the roots was higher than that in the stems and leaves. Most chemical constituents of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) are extracted from the roots, followed by stems. Among the chemicals in Table 2, polyaureosides A–D [18] derivatives from roots and 3,3′,4,4′-tetramethoxy-ε-truxillic acid [19] from leaves were newly reported. In modern medicine, trace elements may also affect the pharmacological efficacy of traditional Chinese medicinal materials. The results of trace element analysis showed that magnesium and calcium are the dominant trace elements in the root tissues of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae), followed by a specific amount of iron and zinc [20]. However, the effects of trace elements on the pharmacological efficacy of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) remain unclear.
The root extract of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants can lower blood lipids, scavenge free radicals, and help patients resist inflammation and aging. According to traditional Chinese medicine, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) can increase “qi” and blood circulation, fortify the spleen and drain dampness, activate the blood and remove stasis, and regulate menstruation. Based on modern medicine, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) show various pharmacological efficacies, i.e., anti-inflammatory effects, antivirus effect, antioxidative effect, immunity-boosting function, hepatic-protective effects, hypolipidemic effect, blood-activating and stasis-eliminating effects, etc. (Table 3). Recently, the extracts of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) were reported to be used for the treatment of endometriosis [35], perimenopausal syndrome [36], diabetic nephropathy [3], and tumors [37]. Previous studies have focused on the effects of total saponins, flavones, and flavones in P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). For instance, Guo et al. (2006) [38] found that the total saponins in P. fallax Hemsl. provided protection against experimental liver injury in animals. Zhang et al. (2008) [39] found that reinioside C can function by repressing the asymmetric dimethylarginine-induced increase in tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The polysaccharides in P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) have been shown to promote the formation of hemolysin antibodies and enhance the immune functions of mice [40]. Notably, when an extract of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is added to related drugs, the concentration of the extract in the drugs should be sufficiently high because the desired effect may not be achieved if the concentration is too low.

6. Propagation and Cultivation of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae)

P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) can be propagated by sowing, cutting, and tissue culture. (i) Regarding propagation by sowing, Weng et al. (2017) [49] found that a high seedling emergence rate and high-quality seedlings can be grown when sowing and raising seedlings of P. fallax Hemsl. at the sowing density of 125~165 seeds m−2, with a depth of 2.0~3.0 cm-thick covering soil (fired soil/red subsoil, 2:1). (ii) Rgearding propagation by cutting, when rooting P. fallax Hemsl. cuttings, the following three important factors require consideration: The cutting season, cutting substrate, and rooting agent [50]. Huang et al. (2016) [51] achieved a high rooting rate of cuttings (92.6%) by selecting humus soil from forests in the autumn and soaking it with a rooting agent (NAA, 200 mg kg −1) for 3 h. Zhang et al. (2008) [15] used whole sand substrate and indolebutyric acid (1 × 10−3) and achieved a rooting rate that exceeded 85%. Rao et al. (2015) [52] employed river sand mixed with yellow subsoil (1:1) as the cutting substrate and achieved a better rooting effect. (iii) Regarding propagation by tissue culture, tissue culture techniques enable rapid and batch propagation of plants. To date, groups of excellent media for inducing and promoting explant proliferation and rooting (Table 4) have been obtained by screening [53,54]. Sowing is the easiest method for propagating P. fallax Hemsl., but its germination rate is low when using this method. Cutting requires specific treatments and conditions, and the survival rate can vary. Tissue culture requires specific professional skills. Several achievements have been made in the propagation of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) through tissue culture technologies; this approach could thus be effective for the rapid propagation of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) [55].
Seedlings obtained via tissue culture should also be transplanted under specific conditions, including in an appropriate substrate and light. With a mixture of peat soil, perlite, and yellow soil (2:1:1) as the transplanting substrate, the survival rate of tissue culture seedlings reached 92.6%, and the seedlings grew well [54]. Chen et al. (2014) [57] transplanted seedlings to a light substrate or yellow subsoil mixed with 5% calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in a small plastic arched shed in the shade of trees and found that the survival rate of the tissue culture seedlings of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) was 84.3%. Yang et al. (2016) [53] transplanted tissue culture seedlings from the same species into a mixed substrate of wormcast and yellow soil (2:1) and found that the survival rate reached 95%. In general, the transplanting substrate of the tissue culture seedlings of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) should be fertile, retain moisture, be air-permeable, and be located away from strong light.
P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) prefers shady and moist conditions; it is thus usually interplanted under forest shade. P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has been planted under Phyllostachys pubescens forests, Cunninghamia lanceolata forests, Pinus massoniana forests, or broadleaved forests [58,59]. An ecological three-dimensional compound planting pattern of trees, shrubs, and P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has also been established by our research group, which provided protection against the local ecological environment and improved economic benefits. The interaction effects among different factors (forest types and altitudes) do not significantly affect the growth of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) under interplanting in forests [60]. This finding implies that this interplanting mode provides suitable conditions for growing P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) and does not restrict its growth, indicating that there is no interspecific competition. Hence, the interplanting of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) in forests is an effective cultivation method. The growth of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is significantly affected by the altitude, planting density, slope, and fertilizer. Weng et al. (2018) [60] recommended interplanting P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) in a mixed forest located 850 m (751~850 m) above sea level. Qiu et al. (2018) [61] found that P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) grows well on the lower slope of forest under the following conditions: Farmyard manure at 3000 kg hm−2 as basal under planting density of 50 cm × 40 cm.

7. Utilization Value of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae)

(i) Medicinal value: As a daodi medicinal material [62], P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is widely used by minorities in Guangxi, including in Zhuang, Miao, and Yao medicine [63]. It is typically used to treat hyperlipidemia and acute and chronic viral hepatitis [25]. For example, the P. fallax Hemsl. koufuye and an empirical formula, Zhuang Tong Yin, in Zhuang medicine (Euonymus fortunei: 30 g, P. fallax Hemsl.: 20 g, and Wedelia wallichii Less: 15 g) are effective for treating hyperlipidemia [64,65]. Sancao Hugan capsules (e.g., P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae), Phyllodii Pulchelli), P. fallax Hemsl. liver-soothing tea bags (P. fallax Hemsl., Radix Astragali seu Hedysari, and Rhizoma Polygoni Cuspidati) and the homemade formula Bailian decoction (45 g of Radix Mallotus Apelta, 30 g of P. fallax Hemsl., 20 g of Rhizoma Polygoni Cuspidati, and 15 g of Radix Curcumae) are effective and have significant curative effects against viral hepatitis [66]. Moreover, Lei et al. (2007) [67] used P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) decoction to treat advanced malignant tumors.
(ii) Edible value. P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is edible and thus is used for both medicine and food in Guangxi. In fact, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has been commonly used in dietary therapy by native people in Guangxi for many years; it is added according to specific dietary formulas to cook delicious foods with medicinal effects. P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae)-based healthcare tea and wine are used as supplements for treating hypertension in middle-aged and elderly individuals; they are effective for controlling chronic diseases.
(iii) Eco-economic value. P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is usually interplanted in forests during the course of artificial cultivation, which does not result in the occupation of additional arable land; it is thus suitable for agricultural and economic development in remote mountainous areas. Competition between trees and P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants interplanted in forests would be absent. The three-dimensional compound planting pattern promotes the ecological diversity of the species. Thus, the interplanting pattern of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) in forests not only protects the local ecological environment but also increases the economic benefits.
(iv) Ornamental value. P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has a resupinate and long inflorescence. The flowers are bright yellow, peculiar, and beautiful, with a long ornamental period (3 months, from summer to autumn). Hence, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is of high ornamental value. P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has been used to make ornamental bonsai and in landscaping [16]. In summary, P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) has considerable medicinal, edible, eco-economic, and ornamental value, and further exploration is needed to explore its utilization potential.

8. Conclusions and Perspectives

P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is a traditional Chinese medicinal material with various utilization values. The chemical constituents and pharmacological efficacy of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) have only been partially characterized, and its breeding and cultivation techniques have been explored. In the present review, it is concluded that P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is a medicinal and edible plant, which has considerable medicinal, edible, eco-economic, and ornamental value. Pharmacologically active compounds such as saponins, flavones, oligosaccharide polyesters, polysaccharides, sterols, and organic acids are primarily identified in roots, which thus serve as the main medicinal parts. Pharmacological efficacies such as anti-inflammatory effects, antivirus effects, antioxidative effects, immunity-boosting functions, hepatic-protective effects, hypolipidemic effects, blood-activating effects, stasis-eliminating effects, amelioration of perimenopausal syndrome and diabetic nephropathy, and antitumor effects have been verified by a series of clinical trial studies. However, research on its applications, conservation, and utilization is lacking. There is thus a need for additional studies that explore the following aspects of this species.
(i) Research on the applications of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is needed. Many studies have examined the chemical constituents and pharmacological efficacy of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae), and most have focused on its crude extract. In addition, the identity of the effective medicinal ingredients remains unclear, and this lack of information limits its medical applications. The mechanism of action of its effective medicinal ingredients also requires deep study, especially the medical and clinical aspects. There are currently few related proprietary Chinese medicines on the market aside from koufuye extracted from P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). The emphasis of future research on the applications of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) should be used to identify the effective constituents, pharmacological efficacy, quality control, and clinical applications. Key genes related to the medicinal ingredients of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) should be identified and cloned via modern molecular techniques.
(ii) The protection of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) should be strengthened. The selection and breeding of the ideal P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) varieties are needed via biotechnological methods such as cell and genetic engineering. In addition, a network for protecting P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) resources can be formed by conducting integrative research on in situ conservation, ex situ conservation, reintroduction conservation techniques, and large-scale ecological planting of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). Moreover, research on the artificial cultivation of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is needed. Artificial breeding and cultivation technologies for P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) are available. The increase in market demand for P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) could be met by further development of the interplanting of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) in forests, which would reduce the exploitation of wild P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae).
(iii) The utilization of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) should be promoted. On the one hand, the development and utilization of the aboveground parts of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) should be improved. The root system of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) is the main part of the plant that is used. Improving the development and utilization of the aboveground parts can improve the utility of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae). On the other hand, all the chemical constituents of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) must be fully used. Total saponins are the chemical constituents that are primarily used currently. Additional studies on the pharmacological activities of other chemical constituents of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae), such as ketones and polysaccharides, are needed.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.W.; methodology, C.W.; validation, C.W., X.Z., B.L. and H.T.; formal analysis, C.W.; investigation, C.W. and B.L.; resources, H.T.; writing—original draft preparation, C.W. and X.Z.; writing—review and editing, C.W., X.Z., B.L. and H.T.; visualization, C.W.; supervision, H.T.; project administration, H.T.; funding acquisition, H.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Science and Technology Major Project of Guangxi, China (grant no. Guike AA22096020), the Guangxi Natural Science Foundation (grant no. 2021GXNSFBA220067), the Guilin Innovation Platform and Talent Plan (20210102-3), and the Basic Research Fund of Guangxi Academy of Sciences (grant no. CQZ-C-1901).

Data Availability Statement

All data are available in the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. Morphological characteristics of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants.
Table 1. Morphological characteristics of P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants.
PartCharacteristics
RootThe roots are bent, beaded, long cylindrical or spindle, and flat in most cases, with a diameter of 0.5~1.0 cm. The bark is grayish-yellow and thick, with wide longitudinal wrinkles, small branches; the texture is soft; and the bark is not completely broken transversely [13,14].
Branch and stemThe stems are gray, with light brown spots. The branches are cylindrical and grayish-green and densely covered with long and flat pubescence [9,13,15,16].
LeafThe leaves are alternate, simple, lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, and membranous. They are 8~17 cm in length and 4~6.5 cm in width, with acuminate apex, cuneate or blunt bases, and margin entire. The leaf surface is dark green, whereas the back is light green, with pubescence on both sides. The main vein is sunken on the surface and bulging on the back, the lateral veins (8~9 pairs) are protruding on the back, with anastomosis at the margin, and the fine veins are reticulate and obvious. The petiole is 9~14 mm long, with grooves and pubescence [8,9,13,15,16,17].
FlowerThe flowers are hermaphroditic and in terminal or axillary racemes. They are 8~15 cm long and erect. After flowering, they are extended up to 30 cm, drooping, and covered with pubescence. Each flower has five sepals that are caducous and have trichomes, including three outer sepals (with 1 in galeate shape in the middle and the other two in oval or round shape, 3 mm long) and two inner sepals (petal-like, obliquely obovate, rounded apex and tapered base). Each flower has three petals that are pure yellow, and the lateral petals are oblong, with the lower two-thirds fused with the carina, the base cassideous toward the calyx surface, and the inside glabrate. The carina is cassideous, and the cristate appendages are petiolate and fimbricate. There are eight stamens (approximately 10~11 mm in length, with the lower two-thirds connected to form a sheath) and oval anthers. The ovary is flattened and round, with trichomes, and the base has a ring-shaped disk. The style is 8~9 mm long, with the apex in two-lobed trumpets and brachypodous stigma [9,13,14,15,16].
FruitThe capsules are broadly obcordate or round, greenish-yellow, and 10~14 mm in diameter, with semiconcentric convex ridges but no wings or trichomes, and the apex has rostrate mucrones and is brachypodous [9,13,15,16].
SeedThe seeds are round, brownish black to black, and approximately 4 mm in diameter, densely covered with white pubescence. The caruncle is cassideous, with a protruding apex [9,13,16].
Table
Table 2. Compounds isolated from P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants.
Table 2. Compounds isolated from P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants.
CompoundsExtractive FractionsReference
Saponinshederagenin.Roots[21]
reinioside C.Roots[22]
tenuifolin; presenegenin.Roots[23]
reinioside A; stigmasta-7, 22-dien-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside.Roots[24]
3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D -xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(4-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3,4-diacetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester.Roots[25]
3β, 23, 27-trihydroxy-29-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl- olean-12-en-28-oic acid; 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-α-l -rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl-(1→5)-β- d-apiofuranosyl-(1→4)-β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranosyl ester; 2β, 27-dihydroxy-3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl 11-oxo-olean-12-en-23; 28-dioic acid 28-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl-(1→5)-β-d -apiofuranosyl-(1→4)-β-d -xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-d-fucopyranosyl ester.Roots[26]
3-O-β-D-gluco-pyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl- (1→2)-(4-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L -rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→3) -β-D -xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester.Roots[18]
3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl -(1→4)-α-L -rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(4-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D -xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(4-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-β -D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3, 4-di-O-acetyl)-β-D -fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D -galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-[(5-O-acetyl)-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→3)]-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3, 4-di-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D -xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(4-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D -xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)]-(4-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D -galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-[β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→3)]-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3, 4-di-O-acetyl)-β-D-fucopyranosyl ester; 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl presenegenin 28-O-β-D -galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-[(5-O-acetyl)-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→3)]-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-(3, 4-di-O-acetyl)-β-D -fucopyranosyl ester.Roots[27]
Flavones3-hydroxy-1, 2, 7-trimethoxyxanthone.Roots[26]
1, 7-dimethoxy-2, 3-methylenedioxyxanthone.Roots[23]
1, 3-dihydroxy xanthone; 1-methoxy-2, 3-methylenedioxy-xanthone.Roots[28]
24-ethyl-7, (E) 22-cholestadien-3-one; 1, 8-dihydroxy-2, 7-dimethoxyxanthone.Roots[29]
1, 3-dihydroxy-2-methoxyxanthone; 1, 3, 6-trihydroxy-2, 7-dimethoxyxanthone.Root & stem[30]
3-hydroxy-1, 4-dimethoxyxanthone; 1, 7-dihydroxy-2, 3- methylenedioxyxanthone.Roots[31]
1-hydroxy-2, 4-dimethoxyxanthone; 1, 2, 3-trimethoxyxanthone; 6-hydroxy-1-methy-oxy-2, 3-methylenedioxyxanthone.Roots[21]
1-methoxy-2, 3-methylenedioxyxanthone; 3-hydroxy-1, 2-dimethoxyxanthone;
1, 6, 7-trihydroxy-2, 3-dimethoxyxanthone; 1, 3, 7-trihydroxy-2-methoxyxanthone; 7-hydroxy-1-methoxy-2, 3-methylenedioxyxanthone.		Roots[2]
Sterolsβ-sitosterol; stigmas terol.Roots[21]
stigmasta-7; 22-dien-3-ol.Roots[24]
24-ethyl-7, (E) 22-cholestadien-3-ol.Roots[29]
1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl- (2S,3S,4R,8E)-2-[(2′R)-2′-hydroxypalmitoyl-amino]-8 -octadecene-1,3,4-triol; 1-O-β-D- glucopyranosyl-(2S,3S,4R,8E)-2-[(2′R)-2′ -hydroxytetra-cosanamino] -8-octadecene-1,3,4-triol.Roots[29]
24-ethyl-7, (E) 22cholestadien-3-ol.Roots[28]
PolysaccharidesSucrose.Roots[26]
arilloside A.Roots[18]
aralia cerebroside.Roots[24]
3-O-[4-O-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-feruloyl]-β-D- fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-(4,6-di-O -benzoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside.Roots[29]
kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; kaempferol 3-O-(2′′-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl -β-D-glucopyranoside).Leaves[19]
tenuifoliside C; β-D-(3-O-sinapoyl)-fructofuranosyl-α-D-(6-O-sinapoyl)-glucopyranoside; β-D-[3-O-(3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamoyl)]-fructofuranosyl-α-D-[6-O-(4-methoxybenzoyl)]-glucopyranoside.Roots[32]
Oligosaccharide polyestermethyl-protocatechuate.Roots[28]
polygalolide A; polygalolide B.Root & stem[33]
n-hexadecane acid monoglyceride.Roots[29]
1-O-(E)-p-coumaroyl-(3-O-benzoyl)-β-d-fructofuranosyl-(21)-[6-O-(E) -feruloyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(12)]-[6-O-acetyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(13)-(4-O-acetyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(13)]-4-O-[4-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl -(E)-p-coumaroyl]-α-d-glucopyranoside.Roots[26]
3-O-{4-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(14 -α-l- rhamnopyranosyl]-feruloyl}-β-d -fructofuranosyl- (21)-(4,6-di-O-benzoyl-α-d-glucopyranoside; 3-O-{4-O-[β- d-gluocopyranosyl-(13) -(2-O-acetyl-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl]-feruloyl}-β-d -fructofuranosyl-(21)-(4,6-di-O- benzoyl-α-d-glucopyranoside; l-O-p-coumaroyl-(3-O-benzoyl-β-d-fructofuranosyl-(21)-[β-d-glucopyranosyl- (12)-[6-O-acetyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(13)-(4-O-p-coumaroyl)-α-d -glucopyranoside; l-O-p-coumaroyl- (3-O-benzoyl)-β-d-fructofuranosyl-(21)-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(12)]-[6-O-acetyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(13)]- (4-O-feruloyl)-α-d-glucopyranoside; 1-O-feruloyl-(3-O-benzoyl-β-d-fructofuranosyl-(21)-[β-d-glucopyranosyl- (12)]-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(13)-(6-O-acetyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(13)]-(6-O-feruloyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside; reiniose D; senegose G; tenuifolioses C; tenuifolioses P.Roots[34]
Organic acidspalmitic acid; p-hydroxybenzoic acid.Roots[28]
3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl senegenic acid; sinapinic acid; ferulic acid.Roots[23]
benzoic acid; 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid; 3, 3′, 4, 4′-tetramethoxy-ε-truxillic acid.Leaves[19]
Othersp-hydroxybenzalde.Roots[28]
Table
Table 3. Pharmacological efficacy of extracts from P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants.
Table 3. Pharmacological efficacy of extracts from P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) plants.
Pharmacological EfficacyClinical Trail StudyKey Pharmacological Active SubstancesReference
Hypolipidemic effectThe extracts reduce cholesterol triglycerides, and lipoproteins in blood.Saponins[41,42]
Blood-activating and stasis-eliminating effectsThe extracts reduce blood viscosity and improve blood circulation and extend the coagulation time.Saponins[43,44]
Hepatic-protective effectsThe extracts can treat acute liver injury, protect alcoholic fatty liver, improve pathological damage of liver tissue, inhibit hepatitis B virus surface antigen, and inhibit the proliferation and apoptosis of human hepatoma cell.Saponins[5,38]
Immunity-boosting functionThe extracts increase immunity organ such as avoirdupois and thymus gland index of mice.Saponins, polysaccharides[40,45]
AntitumorThe isolated flavones show tumor cytotoxic activity.Flavones[37]
Anti-inflammatory effectsThe extracts inhibit the increase of vascular permeability caused by inflammatory mediators and inflammatory reactions and inhibit the immune inflammatory process.Flavones[42,43,46]
Antivirus effectThe extracts inhibit the activity of herpes simplex virus type I and coxsackie B3 virusFlavones[28]
Treatment of endometriosisThe total flavones reduce the viability, migration, and invasion, and increase the apoptosis rate, in human ectopic endometrial stromal cells.Flavones[35]
Antioxidative effectThe extracts can eliminate hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions.Flavones, polysaccharides[47,48]
Ameliorate perimenopausal syndromeThe extracts effectively improve the levels of serum sex hormones and β-EP in rats and relieve the related symptoms with a certain dose-effect relationship.Extract compound[36]
Ameliorate diabetic nephropathyThe extracts slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy by inhibiting excessive cell proliferation, extracellular matrix accumulation, and apoptosis.Extract compound[3]
Table
Table 4. Tissue culture techniques for P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae).
Table 4. Tissue culture techniques for P. fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae).
ObjectiveCulture MediumReference
Shoot organogenesis from hypocotyl or stem segment explantsMS + BAP (2.0 mg L−1) + NAA (0.05 mg L−1)[53]
Explant and callus induction media1/2 MS + NAA (0.1 mg L−1) + BA (2.0 mg L−1)[54]
Culture medium scheme for P. fallax proliferationMS + BAP (1.5 mg L−1) + NAA (0.05 mg L−1)[56]
Culture medium scheme for P. fallax rooting1/2 MS + IBA (0.1 mg L−1) + NAA (0.3 mg L−1) + activated carbon (0.2 g L−1)[56]
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Wu, C.; Zhang, X.; Liu, B.; Tang, H. Research Progress on the Medicinal and Edible Polygala fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) Plant. Horticulturae 2023, 9, 737. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9070737

AMA Style

Wu C, Zhang X, Liu B, Tang H. Research Progress on the Medicinal and Edible Polygala fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) Plant. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(7):737. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9070737

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wu, Chao, Xiujiao Zhang, Baoyu Liu, and Hui Tang. 2023. "Research Progress on the Medicinal and Edible Polygala fallax Hemsl. (Polygalaceae) Plant" Horticulturae 9, no. 7: 737. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9070737

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