Increasing Security Levels in the Tourism and Air-Transport Industries Could Enhance African People’s Quality of Life and Tourism Demand

Abstract

The aims of this study are to analyze the tourism and air-transport industries in Africa and determine how African governments could improve the safety of tourists and local communities in this region to improve resident quality of life and tourism demand. Indeed, this study tries to improve African people’s lives through the tourism and travel sectors so that they can thrive in terms of their quality of life and happiness. The findings of the current study reveal that Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, and Tunisia are the most visited countries by international tourists; in fact, these four countries are the ones that generated the most income from international tourism in the period analyzed. Moreover, the results suggest that the tourism and air-transport industries in Africa could improve national economies, infrastructure, and resident quality of life thanks to international tourism receipts and increasing security levels around travel and tourism activities. Obviously, the tourism industry cannot be developed when there is constant insecurity, terrorism, and perpetual armed conflicts, as is the case in Nigeria, Somalia, DR Congo, Libya, Mali, and Cameroon, among many others. Security is the most important factor for a tourist destination because the safety and security of residents and tourists are the primary factors affecting tourism growth. The novelty of this research resides in its willingness to improve African people’s quality of life through air-transport and tourism activities, providing security guarantees for tourist and resident safety. This manuscript also contributes to enhancing and bootstrapping the literature on security in the travel and tourism sectors industry, particularly in Africa, where security is a priority more than a necessity.

1. Introduction

Tourism in Africa must be reinstated in light of the new scenarios of air accessibility and the difficult times that we are going through (e.g., the pandemic crisis, wars, and feelings of insecurity). This should be a priority to provide new labor opportunities for citizens and to boost sustainable growth that guarantees the operability of companies. According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the tourism industry in Africa needs greater investment in specific tourism activities (products and services segmentation, positioning, and customization) and improved training of employees to boost the number of tourist arrivals and revenue in this region [1]. Most tourists think that tourism in Africa is just visiting Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, and Tanzania, but this mistaken perception is far removed from the real tourism activity in Africa, which reveals a weakness in marketing and promotion management by African Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs). Possibly, this mistaken perception is present because of tourist demands, airport and airline operators, and the most recognized tourist attractions are concentrated in these four countries [2,3].

Tourism is a key factor in the development of African economies, yet limited empirical evidence exists that explores the factors that drive this important contributor to economic growth on the continent [4]. Africa accounts for only 1% of the EUR 1.6 trillion in global tourism revenue, and only 5% (69.1 million tourists) of all tourists visited Africa in 2019; in 2022, it recovered 75% of its pre-pandemic receipts [5,6]. Indeed, 59% of inbound tourists reach their destinations around the world by air [7]. The accessibility of Africa by air needs to be significantly improved in terms of new routes, passengers, air freight, and tourism promotion campaigns [8,9].

Nevertheless, the problem is not only determining how to improve air accessibility but also airport infrastructure, the lack of investment, marketing management, the quality of hotels, and the training of employees, among many others [10]. The big question is how to ensure the safety of tourists since they are one of the principal sources of income for local communities. Security is the most important determinant of a tourist destination [11], and it includes the safety of tourists and the overall safety and security of the territory [12]. Tourist destinations may be seriously affected by a lack of safety, leading to tourists avoiding a destination [13,14]. In 2005, millions of potential American, British, French, Dutch, Australian, Chinese, and Indian travelers considered South Africa an unsafe destination with an uncontrollable crime situation, and this perception had a negative impact on tourism demand [15]. Istiak [16] revealed that a high level of insecurity among tourists significantly reduces tourist arrivals, passenger fare receipts, and expenditures by tourists in the US. Starting from these considerations and gaps, the main objectives of this manuscript are to analyze the tourism and air-transport industries in Africa and determine how African governments could improve the safety of tourists and local communities in this region to improve resident quality of life and tourism demand. Residents are as important as foreign tourists in Africa, and thus, it is important to create a safe environment in which to travel in this territory.

Promoting the wellbeing of residents is a fundamental objective of sustainable tourism development. As researchers, we have it in our hands to help the African people as much as possible, who are the most disadvantaged and vulnerable in terms of quality of life and level of poverty. This research contributes to a better global vision of the travel and tourism industries in Africa, and the perception of tourist safety in this territory. African governments and destination marketing organizations (DMOs) need to coordinate their efforts to enhance perceptions of safety and security in the tourism industry. Tourist feelings of insecurity about traveling to a specific tourist destination may create a mismatch between demand and supply [16]. Externalities, like the Israel and Hamas war, affect the decisions of tourists to travel to African and Middle Eastern regions.

2. Literature Review and Relevant Data Considered in This Study

Africa has great potential to develop into a rapidly growing air-transport market, but its future is burdened by a plethora of issues, such as political instability, protectionist policies, tourism, safety, underdeveloped infrastructure, and a lack of commercial focus, which curtail its expansion [8,17]. In the following subsections, we will tackle these issues to obtain a global vision of Africa’s tourism development and how security directly affects it.

2.1. Airport and Airline Operators Must Be Part of Africa’s Tourism Development

According to UNTWO [1], tourism is defined as “a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon that entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal, business, or professional purposes”. Thus, tourism is highly dependent on air transport for traveler mobility when they go on holidays. Transport accessibility and connectivity with other destinations contribute to increasing the number of passenger arrivals in airports and tourists at destinations, as well as their tourist development [18], particularly the low-cost carriers (LCCs) supported by regional airports that provide low airport fares [19,20]. Florido-Benítez [20] notes that air accessibility must be distinguished between an LCC offering lower fares at the expense of fewer comforts and operating from regional airports to minimize operating costs.

However, a legacy carrier is an airline that has established interstate routes (Hub-and-Spoke airport), providing full-service carriers (FSC), and these carry the flag of the country, such as Ethiopian, Royal Air Maroc, South African Airways, EgyptAir, or Kenya Airlines [19]. Hub airports are those that concentrate the largest number of passenger traffic, flight operations, and air cargo activities at a single location. Legacy carriers offer better passenger experiences than LCCs because they provide direct flights to the main airports of the world, a greater number of routes and frequencies of flights, seat comfort, and quality services on board according to passenger needs and preferences [21].

Tolcha et al. [22] claim that there is a high relationship between air transport and South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and Ethiopia’s economic development because air transport (airlines and airports) improvements benefit society by reducing transport costs for users. However, in terms of airline growth, profitability, and sustainability, African air transport underperforms compared to any other markets. This disadvantage directly affects tourism growth [23].

The coronavirus pandemic had extraordinary detrimental effects on airline operations and seat supply in 2020 [24]. Ethiopian Airlines led the ranking with close to 20 million seats in 2019, followed by EgyptAir, Royal Air Maroc, South African Airways, Air Algérie, Emirates, Air France, Kenya Airways, Saudi Arabian, and British Airways [25] (see Figure 1). In 2024, the two main African airlines in East Africa that dominated in terms of scheduled seat capacity were Ethiopian Airlines, with 28 million, and Kenya Airlines, with 6.6 million [26]. The tourism industry in Africa has experienced strong growth in terms of international tourist arrivals, expenditures, and revenues driven by commercial airlines and airport operators [14]. Heinz and O’Connell [8] revealed that legacy carriers provide strong inter-city connections, and these are currently Africa’s most sustainable airlines.

Regarding the African airports, Figure 2 presents the 58 airport locations and categories examined in this research, along with the International Air-Transport Association’s (IATA) code [27]. Among the 58 airports analyzed, only 8 are hub airports (JNB, CAI, ADD, CPT, CMN, LOS, NBO, and ALG), and the rest are regional airports that are the cornerstone of African countries because they offer air accessibility and connectivity to attract international tourists. From 2016 to 2022, the O.R. Tambo (JNB) airport in Johannesburg was the first by number of passenger arrivals with 114.7 million, followed by CAI airport (101 million), ADD airport (60 million), CPT airport (59 million), CMN airport (52.8 million), LOS airport (44 million), HRG airport (36 million), ABV airport (33.4 million), NBO airport (31.7 million), TUN airport (29 million), and ALG airport with 26.6 million passenger arrivals. As we can see in Figure 2, Egypt and South Africa include two airports by country. This is due to these two African tourist destinations receiving the largest number of passenger arrivals. For instance, the CPT airport in South Africa helps to reduce air traffic congestion at the JNB airport, which is the main airport in South Africa and the African region. In the same way, Hurghada (HRG) airport helps distribute passenger and tourist arrivals in Egypt, and it reduces the number of passengers and air traffic in Cairo airport. CAI airport plays a significant role in connecting Europe with Africa and operates with different airline partners from all destinations. Therefore, we must be aware that airports contribute substantially to improving the country’s tourism, logistics, economy, and tourist experiences [24,28]. The travel demand in the African region is conditioned by commercial airlines and airport operators, as well as airport locations, which enhance the number of visitors to cities and tourist attractions [9,29].

2.2. The Main Tourist Attractions in Africa That Attract International Tourists

The tourism and hospitality sector in Africa has been growing exponentially [30]. Although the pandemic crisis has had a disastrous effect on the tourism and air-transport industries across the globe [31,32,33], the number of tourist arrivals at tourist destinations was reduced to a minimum due to flight cancellations and government restrictions to prevent the rapid spread of the virus. Indeed, international tourists decreased by 75% in the African region in 2020 [34].

To attract international tourists, DMOs, governments, and stakeholders often invest in marketing and promotion campaigns [35,36], but the most important thing is to ensure the safety of residents and tourists, as well as provide excellent transport and accommodation infrastructure. The tourism industry (e.g., hotels, restaurants, transport systems, and national parks) in Africa stimulates the development of local infrastructure and improves the quality of life of its citizens and marginalized populations [14,37]. For instance, tourism in Africa has a positive impact on the empowerment of women because they work very hard and contribute value to the communities in which they reside. On the contrary, Saayman et al. [38] claim that the tourism industry does not help the poor in African countries. Dwyer [39] notes that the tourism contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) indicator does not capture the level of quality of life of the population, the quality of the working environment, social welfare, leisure time, or even people’s health.

Nevertheless, the main tourist attractions in Africa are national parks that tourists like to visit, and most local people depend on the park’s resources for their livelihood and survival [40]. African governments place enormous importance on the tourism sector as a tool to tackle poverty and rehabilitate national parks [41]. However, the main places and tourist attractions of African countries examined in this study are quite diverse. A combination of national parks, monuments, historic sites, hotels, restaurants, airports, and airline operators put African destinations on the tourism map. All of them are supported by promotion and marketing strategies through digital channels to stimulate international tourism demand. In this same vein, Kimbu [42] notes that increasing Africa’s quality and quantity of tourism promotion and marketing contributes to making this destination more attractive, allowing users to search for and buy all the services and products that are needed to make the trip [3].

2.3. Guarantee Tourist and Citizen Security, a Pending Issue in Africa

The relationship between tourism, safety, and security has been extensively researched and documented by authors such as [43,44]. For instance, the reputation of Jamaica or Nigeria as unsafe has been recognized to limit tourist growth [45]. The feeling of insecurity is fertile soil for tourists who do not want to visit a city or country, and it has a negative effect on tourist experiences and resident quality of life. Quality of life is a universal concept that refers to the life conditions and lifestyle of an individual. However, for Bognar [46], quality of life is a social indicator that measures part of a person’s overall welfare that arises from economic sources and that is connected to economic activity. Talking about urban security refers to a set of measures that should improve the quality of life, make the rates of violence decrease, and increase city security. Nwagba et al. [47] found that social insecurity negatively impacted Nigerian tourism and hospitality industry growth; many people remained jobless, and this situation lowered the living standards of the people. Social uncertainty in Africa reduces tourist receipts and visitor arrivals in comparison to other global regions [4].

Hence, if tourists feel unsafe at a destination, it may lead to a decline in tourism activity in a country [15], and residents may not want to create new small businesses due to low tourism demand. Therefore, African governments must guarantee resident and tourist security because the tourism industry is a powerful tool for economic growth and job creation all over the African region. US and UK tour operators consider that the countries with the highest potential for tours during the next few years will be Tanzania, Botswana, Namibia, Cape Verde, and South Africa, and new hotels will be built to cover this new demand [48].

Tourists may not visit some cities when their personal safety and security are in jeopardy, and they cancel travel plans immediately [44]. For instance, if international tourists do not want to visit the main tourist attractions of Nigeria (e.g., Yankari National Park, Calabar, Abuja, Port Harcourt, and Edumanom National Forest, among many others) because they feel unsafe in this city, this situation has a direct impact on the national economy and the quality of life of 224 million citizens of Nigeria. For instance, as a COVID-19 consequence, tourism expenditure in Nigeria decreased by 79% in 2020 compared to the previous year, i.e., Nigeria lost USD 1.1 billion in 2020 [49], and this money could have been used to promote employment and create more and better jobs, to invest in education and training, improve transport systems, accommodation establishments, and public health, among many others. Obviously, the tourism industry in Africa can improve the quality of life for 1.5 billion African citizens.

Africa is an emergent destination that needs to be supported by the governments of the US, Europe, and China to provide safety and political stability. Instead of being distracted from the most pressing threats and poverty that Africa faces in this study, we want to overcome them objectively, using critical thinking to show how the tourism industry would improve the quality of life of African citizens. The wheel of social assistance must continue to work for the benefit of the most disadvantaged people. According to the United Nations (UN), most African countries dedicate less than 20% of their national budget to education; 288 million school-age children remained out of school in 2021, and women and girls remain particularly vulnerable, particularly in countries affected by conflicts [50]. The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) notes that in 2019, over 445 million people lived below the poverty line. This is equivalent to 34% of Africa’s population, and they live on less than USD 1.9 a day [51]. Therefore, this research tries to improve the tourism industry in Africa to help people.

2.4. Security and Terrorism in the African Tourism Context

Foreign tourism in Africa can be disrupted by terrorist activities and extreme climatic conditions. Terrorism continues to be viewed as a revolutionary context; an example of a continuum of this topic is the Israel-Hamas war. For example, Egypt had a decline in travel and tourism demand as a result of terrorism, or even Nigeria, Libya, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Sudan, Mali, Niger, and Chad countries were affected by recent terrorist attacks [52,53]. The feeling of insecurity’s concept conveys a way of experiencing the external world, including other people, as profoundly threatening [53]. On the contrary, security is defined as an ordered and civil cohabitation in the towns and the surrounding territory [54]. In the last 20 years, terrorism, crime, and the COVID-19 pandemic have discouraged Western tourists from traveling abroad; in fact, terrorist attacks against international tourists are a form of political reaction to the hegemony of the West in Africa and the Middle East [55].

For instance, the Government of the UK [56] advises people to avoid traveling to the countries of Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania because further attacks remain likely, including in places visited by foreigners, such as tourist resorts. The International Criminal Police Organization, commonly known as INTERPOL, reported that there is a high risk of tourist kidnapping in North Africa (e.g., Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, and Niger) by militant Islamists in the Sahel, Al Qaeda, and Daesh terrorist groups [57,58]. According to the Global Terrorism Database (GTD), a terrorist attack is a threat or use of violence to achieve a political, economic, religious, or social goal through intimidation or coercion by an actor that is not the state [59,60]. The violence relies on terror as a means of convincing members of the target audience. From a political point of view, terrorism is the indiscriminate destruction of property and life for the purposes of furthering a political agenda [61,62]. Jackson et al. [63] found that there is a high correlation between the impacts of criminal activities and the perceived impacts of crime on individual quality of life. The effects of criminal violence in cities impact people’s quality of life, community, and societal levels [64].

West Africa recorded around 4600 deaths in terrorist attacks between January and 30 June 2023, including 2725 in Burkina Faso, 844 in Mali, 77 in Niger, and 70 in Nigeria [65]. Boly and Kere [66] note that the number of terrorist attacks in Africa increased over seven-fold between 2000 and 2018, also coinciding with a significant increase in military spending on the continent. The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) expanded its global network, brand, and operations, especially in Africa. A total of 10,000 ISIS fighters were detained in 2022; this terrorist organization is making inroads into South Africa, Mozambique, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo countries [67,68,69]. The US government uses the acronym ISISL, “Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant”. This acronym is more accurate than the ISIS acronym because it recognizes the Levant area, which spans the countries of Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey, while ISIS refers exclusively to Iraq and Syria. For instance, the US Africa Command (AFRICOM) was created to work alongside African military personnel to support their military operations in 53 African countries (except Egypt), neutralize regional armed conflicts, and bring peace and security to African people. Nonetheless, African citizens fear that AFRICOM will continue to prop up unpopular governments, and some politicians’ ways will continue [70].

Tourism, socio-economic progress, and African citizen prosperity are compromised by a notable increase in terrorist attacks and activities. For this reason, greater efforts are required in terms of good governance aimed at strengthening public financial management, fighting corruption, and promoting transparency and accountability in public service delivery. Agyeman et al. [71] found that good governance can enhance political stability, control corruption, the rule of law, and resident quality of life, and reduce CO₂ emissions due to tourism development in African countries.

3. Methodology and Data Sources

To understand a city’s or country’s tourism industry and economic development, it is necessary to evaluate its international relations and air transportation activities, which help stimulate economic and tourism growth [3]. When commercial airlines bring millions of international tourists to the African region, these tourists generate earnings that contribute to the economic growth of African countries. However, the tourism industry in Africa is not the main industry due to violent events, disasters, corruption, and terrorism [72,73]. Indeed, the tourism and air-transport sectors in Africa have also suffered the effects of COVID-19, the economic crisis, and political instabilities in terms of international tourist arrivals [74].

The objective of this study is to analyze the tourism and air-transport industries in Africa and how African governments can improve the safety of tourists and local communities in this region to improve resident quality of life and tourism demand. To achieve this objective, data were collected from different organizations and authors to respond to tourism and security requirements by organizations, residents, and tourists. What challenges do African tourist destinations face in an insecure context for residents and tourists? Can the tourism industry grow in Africa with this constant insecurity? Can tourism activity really help improve resident quality of life? In addressing these research questions, this paper advances the understanding of the interrelationship between tourism and security activities in Africa’s travel and tourism landscape. This research implemented the top 25 African countries by the number of terrorist attacks and deaths (2016–2021) to analyze the most dangerous countries in Africa [59,60].

This research uses a quantitative and qualitative method to measure the main indicators selected and project the results obtained in the period established. From a quantitative point of view, variables such as the number of tourist arrivals, the number of passenger arrivals in the most relevant African airports, income from international tourism, and the number of terrorist attacks and deaths in a country were considered in this research. On the other hand, qualitative variables, such as the type of airport (hub or regional), the four levels of travel advisory alert by the US Department of State, and DMO websites of African countries and their main tourist attractions, were also analyzed.

Initially, this study analyses 55 countries in Africa for the period 2016–2022. We selected this timeline from 2016 to 2022 to assess the evolution of the tourism and air-transport sectors in Africa, including the coronavirus effects. For example, we show the best airlines positioned by seating capacity because tourism demand in Africa is linked to the number of international tourists, airline seat capacity, and connectivity with other countries and regions [25].

It is very important to analyze the main indicators of tourism demand and supply at tourist destinations to manage marketing and promotion campaigns, segment tourism markets, and personalize tourism products and services [75], such as the number of passenger arrivals [76], airport locations [19,20], number of tourist arrivals [14], and the main tourist attractions that are visited by million tourists [1,77,78] because these indicators are the most frequently used measures of tourism demand and supply [10,79]. All these indicators provide tourism revenues, and they have a positive and significant impact on some African countries’ tourism development and resident quality of life [80,81].

Moreover, we included the variable of African countries’ travel advisory levels by the US Department of State [67,82] and the Institute for Economics & Peace [83] to examine the reality of security in Africa and how the feeling of insecurity and terrorist attacks can have negative effects on potential tourists who would like to visit African countries. Government travel advisories are important guides for travelers on risks for travelers when visiting international destinations, and they make better decisions about their travel plans. When governments and tour operators do not advise travelers to travel in unsafety, most times, travelers cancel their trips [84,85]. Above, when tourists are planning to visit dangerous tourist destinations, travel advisories provide information to assist in the identification of potential threats in these destinations [86].

To close this section, the main indicators of tourism demand and supply (secondary data) were taken from public and private organizations such as CAPA [25], UNTWO [1,5,6,7,49], UN [50], Government of the UK [56], Africa Centre for Strategic Studies [57], INTERPOL [58], GTD [59] US Department of State [67,82], and the Institute for Economics & Peace [83], among many others. The collection of all these data from sources and organizations reveals the efforts made by the authors in this research project. Therefore, understanding the effects of tourism on poverty reduction in African countries requires a descriptive analysis of the main indicators of interest mentioned previously.

4. Findings

The Most Relevant African Countries for International Tourists

Tourism growth is on the rise in Africa, but political instability, corruption, and social unrest deter tourists [4]. Figure 3 displays the top 20 African countries most visited by foreign tourists from 2016 to 2022. Morocco is the most visited African country, with almost 65 million tourists, followed by Egypt with 60.6 million, South Africa with 52 million, Tunisia with 41.6 million, Zimbabwe with 11.5 million, and Mozambique with almost 11 million tourists. Instead, the rest of African countries are below the 10 million international tourists, but they generate wealth in their territories. International tourism is recognized as a conduit for poverty alleviation and infrastructure development in Africa [87]. Moreover, African governments and tourism companies should work jointly to make tourism products and services more competitive by developing and improving infrastructure, such as airports, roads, and the cleanliness of public restrooms [88].

Tourism in Morocco is largely focused on Marrakesh and Agadir locations, and accommodations and airports have contributed positively to this destination’s tourist attractiveness and number of international tourist arrivals [89]. Conversely, Egypt and Tunisian destinations have suffered a significant decrease in tourists, which has benefited Morocco, particularly from 2016 to 2019. Morocco’s tourism development is focused on regional policy, tourism hubs and spaces, international financing, and strategic marketing plans to attract foreign tourists. Salameh and Hourani [90] and Bakota et al. [91] found that revolutions and terrorist attacks led to a reduction in the number of arrivals of foreign tourists in 2015, which decreased by 42% in Egypt [90].

For this reason, Egyptian and Tunisian governments should enforce strict measures against terrorism to promote safety and security within the tourism context [60,92]. Findings reveal that Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, and Tunisian destinations are the most visited by international tourists. In fact, these four countries are the ones that generated the most income from international tourism in the period analyzed. We cannot forget that airports and commercial airlines facilitate the flow of international tourists to African tourist destinations.

In 2022, Egypt generated USD 10.7 billion in international tourism receipts [93], followed by Morocco (USD 9 billion), South Africa (USD 4.8 billion), Tanzania (USD 2.5 billion), and Tunisia USD 1.7 billion [5,6,53]. However, African countries such as Mauritius (USD 1.5 billion), Ethiopia (USD 1.2 billion), Kenya (USD 1.1 billion), Nigeria (USD 1.1 billion), Sudan (USD 1.1 billion), Uganda (USD 1 billion), Seychelles (USD 0.9 billion), Zambia (USD 0.8 billion), and Ghana (USD 0.6 billion) improved their regional and local economies thanks to the international tourism receipts. These data suggest that only 14 African countries out of 55 analyzed are potentially dependent on tourism activities, and it is a key driver towards economic growth for these 14 countries.

For example, the tourism sector in Tanzania is instrumental in the fight against poverty through job creation, and it stimulates the development of the hospitality and transport industries. In 2020, the average international tourism receipt for Tanzania was 24%, and this figure helped to build up her economy by investing in the tourism sector in comparison with other countries like Kenya, Uganda, or Ghana that perceive less income from international tourism [94]. Hence, findings reveal that the tourism and air-transport industries in Africa can improve national economies, infrastructure, and resident quality of life thanks to international tourism receipts. On the contrary, the African countries that received less income or nothing from international tourism in 2022 were:

• Angola: USD 0.
• Eswatini: USD 0.
• Guinea: USD 0.
• Lesotho: USD 0.
• Mozambique: USD 0.2 billion.
• Namibia: USD 0.3 billion.
• Botswana: USD 0.4 billion.
• Rwanda: USD 0.4 billion.

Furthermore, we included other African countries that received less income or nothing from international tourism in 2021 (UNTWO does not show data from 2022 for the following countries):

• Burundi: USD 0.
• Central African Republic: USD 0.
• Chad: USD 0.
• Congo: USD 0.
• Djibouti: USD 0.
• Guinea Bissau: USD 0.
• Liberia: USD 0.
• Malawi: USD 0.
• Mauritania: USD 0.
• Sao Tome & Principe: USD 0.
• Sierra Leone: USD 0.
• Algeria: USD 0.1 billion.
• Burkina Faso: USD 0.1 billion.
• Cape Verde: USD 0.1 billion.
• Comoros: USD 0.1 billion.
• The Gambia: USD 0.1 billion.
• Madagascar: USD 0.1 billion.
• Niger: USD 0.1 billion.
• Togo: USD 0.1 billion.
• Zimbabwe: USD 0.1 billion.
• Benin: USD 0.2 billion.
• Mali: USD 0.2 billion.
• Côte d’Ivoire: USD 0.3 billion.
• Senegal: USD 0.4 billion.
• Cameroon: USD 0.5 billion.

Apparently, these 41 African countries, which receive less income or nothing from international tourism, show us that there is a lack of concern and interest in tourism development by these countries and their respective governments to work and improve the tourism industry and the quality of life of the most vulnerable populations. According to these results, they should create a tourism development that highlights their main tourist attractions, culture, and local communities to attract international tourists. Another important result that emerged from these data was that some African countries do not recognize the tourism industry to boost their economic growth and competitiveness in the African region. Unfortunately, deficient infrastructure, situations of insecurity, violence, dictatorships, political conflicts and interests, corruption, poor governance, and terrorism make it practically impossible to develop tourism activities in these African countries. Some African countries need to recognize the tourism industry as an income-generating sector capable of bringing about socio-economic development in their local communities and enhancing their resident quality of life [42].

5. Discussion

The Reality of Security and Terrorism in the African Region

Addressing security and terrorism in Africa has not been easy to develop and analyze in this study, as all of us know human needs, poverty, and suffering in some African countries. For this reason, this research project has been developed to improve the quality of life of African people through the tourism industry. In reality, Africa’s roots of terrorism and economic interests lie outside of this region, provoking political instabilities to control some governments and their natural resources. Although most Africans are peaceful people, radical Islamic ideology fuels terrorism, and it is quietly gaining power in Africa [94].

To assess the reality of security in African countries, this study has implemented the four levels of travel advisory alert (see Figure 4), according to the US Department of State [67,82]. Many countries issue travel alerts to inform their citizens about potential risks when traveling abroad, although the final travel decisions remain the responsibility of individual travelers. DMOs and governments need to be aware of the impact terrorist attacks have on tourist behavior and how they can improve tourist experiences in their tourist destinations.

According to the US Department of State [67,82], Sudan, South Sudan, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali, the Central African Republic, Libya, and Somalia are at Level 4; i.e., it is recommended that tourists not travel to these African countries due to crime, terrorism, civil unrest, health issues, sexual assault, kidnapping, armed conflict, and piracy. Level 3 of the travel advisory includes Egypt, Nigeria, Uganda, Ethiopia, Burundi, Chad, Guinea Bissau, the DR Congo, and Mauritania. It is not a coincidence that these are among the African countries that receive less income from international tourism (except Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Uganda). From a tourist behavior viewpoint, travel advisories can influence tourist travel choices, as well as the alternative of visiting other safer tourist destinations. Walters et al. [95] found that tourist preferences change as the threat of terrorism intensifies in specific countries or destinations.

Ten countries are included in the Sahel zone: Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, The Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal, and most of them have 4 and 3 travel advisory levels (except Senegal, Guinea, and The Gambia). The Sahel is a zone of multiple crises in which numerous drivers have created the conditions for the growth of new threats in the region. First, jihadism in the Sahel has been strongly shaped by a volatile regional context [96]. In addition, second, this zone has abundant human and natural resources, which could be controlled by Islamist groups, companies, or countries with opposing interests that directly affect the prosperity and peace of the Sahel area. Taken together, they are the root causes of African terrorism. Apau and Banunle [97] argue that transnational organized crimes, drug trafficking, insurgents, and persistent inter-communal violence have contributed to the vulnerability of Sahel states to terrorist organizations. There are deep-rooted challenges—environmental, political, and security that may affect the future of Sahel countries. In 2024, European Union troops abandoned the Sahel region because of terrorism, civil wars, and a high scale of insurgencies linked to Al Qaeda and the Islamic State.

The growing importance of Africa’s oil and minerals to the US’s economy and military industry has been prioritized at the top of Washington’s global security agenda, in fact, the US government has implemented new security initiatives for conducting its security relations with Africa. For instance, Niger and Nigeria have suffered continuous attacks on oil installations and the abduction of expatriate oil workers, as well as the stealing of oil from pipelines by armed groups intent on controlling oil revenues in these two regions. These attacks are seen as a threat to Europe and the US’s energy security. All these factors previously mentioned have negative impacts on the Sahel area and the rest of African countries’ tourism and air-transport industries. Moreover, future foreign investments in the tourism and aviation sectors can also be suspended in many areas throughout Africa owing to prevailing insecurity. Countries that provide high levels of peace have greater income growth, as well as higher levels of wellbeing, tourism, environmental development, and resilience to future economic crises [83].

On the other hand, African countries that are included on Level 2 of the travel advisory are Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia, Algeria, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, Tanzania, Gahanna, Benin, Madagascar, Angola, Cameroon, Malawi, Eswatini, The Gambia, Guinea, Djibouti, Congo, Sierra Leone, Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Liberia. However, we would like to point out that in some of these African countries, tourists are warned to avoid traveling to particular places, such as the Sinai Peninsula and the Western Desert in Egypt; particular districts in South Africa and Angola; the desert south of Remada in Tunisia; and the cities of Kandi and Tanguieta in Benin, among many others. Governments must provide detailed and secure information about outbound tourism and foreign countries for tourists to know the travel policies and safety regulations through travel advisories. During the COVID-19 pandemic, government travel advisories were an excellent communication and prevention tool for avoiding travel to countries with high COVID-19 prevalence.

Meanwhile, the travel advisory levels may have different security connotations in different countries, i.e., the Level 2 travel advisory of Spain, Italy, and France countries is totally different from Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt countries. In these three European countries, travel advisories provide information about. However, in Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt, travel advisories provide detailed information about locations, cities, districts, types of violence, and crime, as well as specific information related to terrorist groups and possible terrorist attacks. This relevant information suggests that DMOs, online travel agencies (OTAs), and commercial airlines should include on their official websites which countries, cities, and districts are actually dangerous for tourists to visit, according to travel advisories for each country of origin. Indeed, governments and OTAs should considerably improve travel advisories and expand their distribution channels to communicate and remind (e.g., COVID-19, wars, political instabilities, etc.) travelers of the present travel alerts before they make a travel decision.

Regarding the Level 1 travel advisory, the following African countries are included: Rwanda, Botswana, Namibia, Mauritius, Zambia, Lesotho, Togo, Senegal, Sudan, the Seychelles, Cape Verde, Comoros, and Sao Tome & Principe. These results show that these 13 tourist destinations are the safest African countries in 2023, and some of them, like Mauritius, the Seychelles, Sudan, and Zambia, are among the African countries that receive more international tourism receipts. In addition, these countries provide light and hope to researchers and the region of Africa because they are generating wealth and prosperity for residents through the tourism industry thanks to good governance by government bodies and ensuring the safety of tourists and their citizens. These findings are similar to those reported by the Institute for Economics & Peace [83], showing that the top 5 safest countries in Africa are Mauritius, Ghana, The Gambia, Botswana, and Sierra Leone. Ghana and Senegal are known for the relative absence of ethnic conflict and terrorist attacks. The tourism industry is the fourth highest income earner for Ghana after gold, cocoa, and oil, and this sector generated 682,000 jobs in 2016 [98]. In the case of Senegal, tourism generated 422,000 jobs in 2018 [99].

Santana-Gallego and Fourie [100] highlight the importance of government expenditure on safety and security to protect the African tourism industry, residents, and international tourists. That is why governments and DMOs must be aware that tourists are paying increased attention to travel advisories, especially after the coronavirus crisis. Beshay [101] suggests that travel advisories on African countries usually exaggerate the security threat, and these are very destructive for their fragile economies. Even Western countries use travel advisories as a means of disciplining the warned-against countries. What is clear is that almost the whole of Africa is threatened by crime, kidnapping, violence, civil unrest, terrorism, and armed conflicts, and this constant insecurity does not guarantee the safety of residents and tourists and, very importantly, the stability and viability of the future tourism and air-transport industries in some African countries. An example of continued terrorist attacks and deaths in the region of Africa is shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6. As stated above, Nigeria is one of the most insecure African countries, but this country also provided the largest number of terrorist attacks and terrorist deaths in Africa in the period analyzed.

For example, Nigeria had 650 terrorist attacks and 2577 deaths due to terrorism in 2018. These are alarming and worrisome figures, and they indicate that it is impossible to ensure the security of residents and tourists, as well as maintain the stability of the economy, tourism, and investment in this country. From 2016 to 2021, Nigeria had 3106 terrorist attacks and close to 12,000 deaths. Even so, Nigeria received USD 1.1 billion from international tourism receipts.

The second African country by number of terrorist attacks and terrorist deaths is Somalia, and tourism activities in this country are very limited because of terrorist attacks and piracy [70]. Somalia had 2512 terrorist attacks and 6821 deaths in the period examined. Menkhaus [102] suggests that terrorist attacks will inevitably continue to occur inside Somalia because Al Qaeda and other Islamic terrorist groups have a great presence in this territory. Similarly, DR Congo occupies the third place, and this country had 1177 terrorist attacks and 4808 deaths from 2016 to 2021. Regardless, the reality is that the humanitarian and security situation in DR Congo is extremely dire due to a continuing proliferation of armed groups, terrorist attacks, and kidnapping [103,104]. DR Congo needs to attract more tourists by investing considerably in public infrastructure and security [105]. Tourists often complain that they cannot see the gorillas in DR Congo, Rwanda, Congo, and Uganda because they hide from the war and poachers [105].

The remaining African countries, namely Libya, Egypt, Mali, Cameroon, Mozambique, Sudan, Kenya, South Sudan, the Central African Republic, Niger, Ethiopia, South Africa, Burundi, Tunisia, Uganda, Algeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Rwanda, Burkina Faso, Tanzania, and Angola, continue to produce terrorist attacks and deaths to the present day.

In 2023, a suicide bomber killed at least 30 soldiers and wounded scores more inside a military academy in Somalia’s capital, Mogadishu. The bombing was claimed by the Al Qaeda-linked Al Shabab terrorist group [106]. That same year, Al Shabab also killed 54 Ugandan peacekeepers at a base south of Mogadishu. As stated by Polyzos et al. [61], Egypt and the remaining African countries have experienced a surge in terrorist incidents, and terrorist groups are using tourism targets to gain global visibility. Notwithstanding, our results indicate that the number of terrorist attacks (–59.8%) and deaths (–38.6%) has been reduced significantly from 2016 to 2021. Apparently, these data are very positive and hopeful for African citizens and tourism and air-transport companies. Tourism is linked to resident and tourist safety and security at tourist destinations.

Iheonu [107] found that both the number of terrorist incidents and deaths from terrorism considerably reduced the number of foreign tourist arrivals and tourist expenditure in the region of Africa. Attacks against foreigners generate more attention than attacks against African residents because foreign media outlets have a greater impact on the different target audiences [66]. Africa is the second region with the largest number of terrorist attacks (13,124 terrorist attacks and 43,450 deaths from terrorism) in the period analyzed. The first is the region of Asia [59]. South Sudan, DR Congo, Somalia, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Chad are among the most dangerous countries in the world due to terrorist attacks, internal conflicts, political instability, and jihadist groups [83]. With these terrorism, deaths, and violence levels in some African countries, it is impossible to develop national policies for economic and social cohesion to guarantee resident and tourist security, as well as the tourism and air-transport industries. Where there are so many deaths and terrorist attacks, it is really difficult to look ahead to a hopeful and prosperous future for residents.

Optimistic outlooks have frequently been posited for Africa, often prefaced with statements that all that is needed is free markets, better governance, and an end to corruption. Feldman [108] notes that the reality is that some parts of Africa may never be at peace. I disagree with Feldman because this study has revealed that some African countries, such as Egypt, Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, and Tanzania, are examples of overcoming, effort, and good governance to improve resident quality of life and tourist safety and experience through the tourism and air-transport sectors. Indeed, these five African countries increased the number of passengers and foreign arrivals from 2016 to 2019, as well as the international tourism receipts in 2022, over the previous year. Another thing is that Western and Asian countries’ political and economic interests are interested in maintaining dictatorships, corruption, and political instabilities to control Africa’s oil and minerals under the veil of a pseudo-democracy that only favors the politicians while the African population is hit by famine and hardships.

6. Conclusions

The main goal of this manuscript was to analyze the tourism and air-transport industries in Africa and how African governments can improve the safety of tourists and local communities in this region to improve resident quality of life and tourism demand. Initial results indicate that the tourism and air-transport sectors of Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia, Mauritius, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda, Seychelles, Zambia, and Ghana have substantially contributed to improving the economy and resident quality of life through international tourism receipts. Thanks to these tourism revenues, these countries can invest in public health, education, potable water infrastructure, transport systems, and accommodation, promote employment, create more and better jobs, and improve public facilities and infrastructure. Tourism development has a positive impact on African resident quality of life through the attraction of investors, job creation, education, and preservation of local cultures.

The tourism and air-transport industries are the cornerstones for economic growth, job creation, and citizen prosperity in some African countries, and possibly in the near future and for the rest of the African region. For instance, African airports play a significant role in connecting Europe, America, and Asia with Africa and operate with different airline partners from all destinations. From 2016 to 2022, the African hubs and regional airports examined in this study received about 600 million passenger arrivals thanks to commercial airlines. Both airports and airlines are focused on increasing airport passenger numbers by attracting more foreign tourists and businesses to the territory and delivering economic benefits to Africa. In addition, airports and commercial airlines have notably contributed to Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, and Tunisia being the most visited destinations in Africa. The combination of tourism assets and air accessibility is of utmost importance in understanding the tourism industry in the region of Africa.

The question is that the tourism industry as an engine of development, job creation, and prosperity is not yet recognized by some African countries such as Angola, Mali, Chad, DR Congo, Rwanda, Central African Republic, Liberia, Mauritania, among many others because they see the tourism industry as a new form of postcolonialism [109]; and particularly the Islamist terrorist groups (e.g., Al Qaeda, Daesh, Al Shabab, Nigerian Taliban, Yusufiyya, and Islamic State West Africa) which have a great presence in the Sahel zone and other African countries, in fact, they are attacking against tourism targets and foreign visitors to gain global visibility [110]. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) reported that the Sahel region is now the epicenter of terrorism in the world [111].

Therefore, African governments should guarantee and protect airport infrastructure, tourist attractions, and foreign investment, as well as create the conditions for a peace process to prosper in the entire African territory and have its citizens live together in peace and harmony. Now is the time for the US, China, and European countries to address the issue of safety and security in the tourism, air transport, oil, and mineral industries because of their investments and economic interests. The tourism industry cannot be developed by constant insecurity, terrorism, and perpetual armed conflicts, as is the case in Nigeria, Somalia, DR Congo, Libya, Mali, and Cameroon, among many others. Security is the most important factor in a tourist destination because safety and security for residents and tourists are primary factors in tourism growth. Visitors like to visit tourist destinations with similar levels of security to those that exist in their origin country. DMO African managers must be proactive in managing the security of their locations by actively managing the identities of their locations.

Most African countries must also address new challenges and opportunities that have emerged in the tourism, air transport, security, cybersecurity, and technology contexts to meet resident and tourist needs. Information and communication technology and infrastructure in Africa must be closely linked to international tourism demand. Nevertheless, our results indicate that only 20 of 55 African countries show information related to accommodations on their official tourism websites. Moreover, most tourism websites present a lack of interactivity and communication between users and tourist destinations to motivate them to visit African countries, as well as a lack of creativity, quality content, photos, design, and development in tourism websites. Not forgetting to mention that Benin, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Gabon, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, and Western Sahara countries do not have official tourism websites. For this reason, the interoperability between tourism websites and visiting intentions by potential tourists requires greater efforts by DMOs in Africa, hotels, and stakeholders. Communicating a destination’s tourist attractions and its brand image through its official tourism website is crucial for tourism destinations because these marketing strategies can influence tourist intention to visit. We must be aware that DMO website platforms are used to project tourist attractions and destination images, as tourists make travel decisions based on their credibility.

Interestingly, a result of this research was that African governments and DMOs need to be aware of the impact terrorist attacks have on tourist behavior and how they can improve tourist experiences in their tourist destinations through travel advisories. When we analyzed travel advisories to travel to African countries on the official website of the US Department of State, it recommended that tourists not travel to Sudan, South Sudan, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali, the Central African Republic, Libya, and Somalia (Level 4) due to crime, terrorism, civil unrest, health issues, sexual assault, kidnapping, armed conflict, and piracy. Tourists do not feel safe traveling to these African countries, and even less when their countries of origin or embassies have limited capacity to provide support to them. Threat severity information in some tourist destinations through government travel advisories affects the tourist travel intention, motivation, and perception.

Another important outcome was that Rwanda, Botswana, Namibia, Mauritius, Zambia, Lesotho, Togo, Senegal, Sudan, Seychelles, Cape Verde, Comoros, and Sao Tome & Principe countries received the Level 1 travel advisory, according to the US Department of State [67,82], and most of them are among the safest African countries in 2023 [83]. This relevant information provides light and hope to this research project and African governments because they are generating wealth and prosperity for residents through the tourism industry thanks to good governance by government bodies and ensuring the safety of tourists and their citizens. Indeed, our findings revealed that the number of terrorist attacks was reduced by 59.8% and terrorist deaths by 38.6%, respectively, from 2016 to 2021. Most countries in Africa are taking measures to improve resident and tourist security, with the goal of attracting and retaining capital as well as bootstrapping international tourism demand.

In general, it is important to note that there has always been a ray of light and hope in this research to improve African resident quality of life through the tourism and air-transport industries. I would like to highlight that as a Spanish citizen, I grew up hearing about terrorist attacks (850 murders and 86 people kidnapped) and seeing funerals that were brought by the ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) terrorism across Spain. Nevertheless, the Spanish government opened the way to dialogue and understanding, the cessation of arms and violence by ETA, and excellent governance opened the door to peace, prosperity, and dignity in this country. Presently, Spain is a clear reference point in tourism, air transport, safety, the fight against terrorism, and cybersecurity activities across the globe.

6.1. Theoretical and Managerial Implications

Initially, this manuscript contributes to the literature on tourism and security in Africa and how airports and airlines can enhance the number of foreign tourists in this region. However, results reveal that terrorism does not make it possible to develop the tourism industry in some African countries, especially in the Sahel zone. These results are also supported by Santana-Gallego and Fourie [110], arguing that terrorism is the main security threat affecting tourist arrivals to Africa and the development of travel and tourism activities. Foreign tourism is a conduit for poverty alleviation and infrastructure development, as demonstrated in Morocco, Egypt, Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia, Mauritius, Ethiopia, and Kenya. To limit terrorist attacks in Africa, governments need to make specifically targeted measures to attack the socio-economic roots of terrorist groups [112]. Consequently, poverty and illiteracy must be overcome to remove terrorism in Africa. Education is a powerful tool that gives people the ability to take control of their lives and avoids indoctrination and incitement to violence, which is, regrettably, all too common in some areas of the African region. This research also contributes to enhancing the literature on security in the travel and tourism sectors industry, particularly in the Africa region, where security must be a priority more than a necessity.

In addition, findings show that only 14 African countries are aware of the importance of tourism and travel activities as a key driver of economic growth in their countries. Therefore, the tourism and air-transport sectors have a huge potential to create jobs and stimulate Africa’s economic growth, as well as resident quality of life [113]. Indeed, airports and commercial airlines play an important role in the most visited countries like Morocco, Egypt, Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia, and Mauritius, among others, because they are the main gateways of access for international tourists. Greater efforts are needed by governments and operators to improve the aviation industry in Africa by boosting airline and airport productivity and competitiveness, as well as air accessibility in domestic and international contexts. Over 800 airports are distributed across the African continent, yet only one-tenth receive scheduled services [114]. This study also suggests that tourism is not developing in the best possible way in some African countries, even in some countries it is not developing, such as Chad, Congo, and Sierra Leone. Moreover, most African countries do not tackle quality problems in tourism, insufficient staff education, health risks (e.g., vaccination necessary to prevent many diseases), accommodation capacities, especially in rural areas, healthcare, and food safety, among many others. All these significant causes can decide whether a tourist wants to go to Africa or not.

This research also provides practical implications, providing evidence of the importance of resident and tourist security to generate wealth and prosperity in the region of Africa. Taking into consideration the findings in this paper, we recommend that African governments and DMOs make every effort to provide detailed information and data on the tourism and aviation sectors, develop and design official tourism websites according to new tourist needs, and promote African heritage and its main tourist attractions. To finish this subsection, our findings show how the fragility of the tourism industry in Africa is well known as a result of insecurity, terrorist attacks, corruption, poverty, and political instabilities. Due to these circumstances, all the world governments, DMOs, OTAs, and commercial airlines should include on their official websites which countries, cities, and districts are actually dangerous for tourists to visit, according to travel advisories for each country of origin. In 2020, the cancellations of tourist travel to visit African countries forewarned African tourism and travel organizations that there was a problem with tourist security, and they should establish travel advisories related to the COVID-19 pandemic, safety, and security situation [30].

6.2. Study Limitations and Future Research

Preliminary findings for this study were based on exploratory research. One of the limitations of this research was that most African countries do not provide tourism and air-transport statistics data, and some of them do not have official tourism websites. In addition, a few African countries provide total data to the UNTWO organization, as we mentioned previously. This information is very relevant for researchers and organizations, and it shows us that some African countries do not value the importance of the tourism industry for their citizens and economic development. The lack of tourism information and data limits the competitiveness and performance of the tourism sector in Africa. Another limitation of this study was the collection of data from different public and private organizations due to African governments and DMOs providing limited information and data on their official websites.

Furthermore, if researchers want to develop research projects in African countries, they will face great difficulties in finding updated data and information due to the limited resources available in African countries in the tourism and air-transport sectors, e.g., daily tourist expenditure, the hotel occupancy rate in the entire region of Africa, and the number of passenger arrivals at African airports, among others.

Although this manuscript shows the importance of the tourism and air-transport sectors to the prosperity of the region of Africa, few studies have tackled how the tourism and air-transport industries could enhance resident quality of life and local economies through good governance and ensuring the safety of tourists. Therefore, it would be interesting to develop future studies in this research line, which could help boost prosperity in African regions and their citizens. Furthermore, it would be quite interesting to examine and benchmark which African countries are the most favorable to invest in the tourism, air transport, and technology industries to promote foreign investment in developing countries. Finally, future research can focus on collecting more detailed and accurate data on African destinations that are emerging, such as those from Egypt, Tunisia, Mauritius, or Tanzania, to demonstrate that the tourism and air-transport industries can play a significant role in setting the economies of the rest of African destinations.