A Review of Sand–Clay Mixture and Soil–Structure Interface Direct Shear Test
Abstract
:1. General Introduction
2. The Role of Clay on the Mechanical Behavior of Sand–Clay Mixtures
2.1. State of the Art of the Mechanical Behavior of Sand–Clay Mixtures
2.1.1. Definition of Sand–Clay Mixture
2.1.2. Experimental Studies on Sand–Clay Mixtures’ Mechanical Behavior
2.2. Influence Factors on the Mechanical Response of Sand–Clay Mixtures
2.2.1. Fines Content
2.2.2. Intergranular and Interfine Void Ratios
2.2.3. Transitional Fines Content (FCt)
2.2.4. Microstructure of Sand–Clay Mixture
2.3. Concluding Remarks
- The mechanical behavior of the sand–clay mixture depends on the clay fraction. At low clay content it is mainly sand-controlled; at high clay content, it is primarily clay-controlled, while in the middle range of clay content, i.e., the transitional zone, the sand–clay mixture’s responses are not clear.
- Various factors control the mechanical behavior of sand–clay mixture, e.g., intergranular void ratio, water content, global void ratio, and density, which are always related to the clay fraction.
3. Interface Direct Shear Test
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Interface Direct Shear Test
3.2.1. Basic Knowledge
3.2.2. Boundary Conditions
- Constant Normal Load (CNL): The normal stress remains constant during the shearing stage of the interface direct shear test. In this case: , , .
- Constant Volume (CV) or Constant Normal Height (CNH): The normal stress changes during the interface shearing, and no normal displacement is allowed in the upper part of the interface element. In this case: , , .
- Constant Normal Stiffness (CNS): The normal stress changes proportionally to the elastic stiffness of the surrounding soil during the interface shear test. In this case: constant, , .
3.2.3. Interface Thickness
3.3. Influence Factors on the Mechanical Behavior of the Soil–Structure Interface
3.3.1. Effect of Normal Stress
3.3.2. Effect of Soil Density
3.3.3. Effect of Water Content
3.3.4. Influence of Interface Roughness
- Mode-1: The interface is rough; hence, shear failure occurs in the soil body.
- Mode-2: The interface is smooth, and full sliding occurs along with the interface.
- Mode-3: The shear failure and sliding occur simultaneously at the interface part.
- For silica sand–structure or carbonate sand–structure interfaces, the shear behavior of the interface is not sensitive to thermal changes (for example, 8 °C~18 °C in Vasilescu [7]), which is confirmed by the fact that the friction angle of the sand–structure remains almost constant.
- For clay–structure interfaces, heating increases the shear strength of the interface and the cohesion between the two materials; this may be attributed to the thermal consolidation caused by heating [2,163]. Additionally, when the clay–structure interfaces are tested under drained conditions, a volumetric contraction is usually observed, agreeing with the typical behavior of NC clays. This can be explained by the fact that contraction is accompanied by loss of moisture of the soil. Attention should be paid, however, to the fact that the temperature range studied (typical of geothermal engineering) is not too high (e.g., 5 °C, 20 °C, and 40 °C in Yavari et al. [19]; −18 °C~20 °C in Xiao et al. [163]; 20 °C and 60 °C in Di Donna et al. [2]).
3.4. Particle Movement during Shearing
3.5. Interface Direct Shear Tests on Sand–Clay Mixture
4. Conclusions
- The mechanical behavior of the sand–clay mixture depends on the clay fraction, i.e., the changes of texture of sand–clay mixture functions of the clay content.
- Various factors that have relation to the clay fraction control the mechanical behavior of the sand–clay mixture (e.g., intergranular void ratio, water content, global void ratio, density).
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Percentage of Clay in the Mixture (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mixture | Test Type | Sand-Controlled | Controlled by Both | Clay-Controlled | Reference |
Gravel–clay | Triaxial test | <15 | 15~30 | >30 | Marsal (1976) |
Gravel–clay | Triaxial test | <35 | 35~50 | >50 | Holtz (1961) |
Sand–clay | Triaxial test | <30 | 30~50 | >50 | Paduana (1966) |
Sand–clay | Triaxial test | <20 | 20~30 | >30 | Georgianou et al., (1990) |
Sand–clay | Ring shear | <13 | 13~47 | >47 | Lupini et al., (1981) |
Sand–clay | Direct shear | <20 | 20~38 | >38 | Kurata and Fujishita (1961) |
Sand–clay | Direct shear | <20 | 20~50 | >50 | Schloser and Long (1974) |
Glass beads–clay | Direct shear | <40 | 40~60 | >60 | Schloser and Long (1974) |
Sand–clay | Direct shear | <25 | 25~60 | >60 | Vallejo (2000) |
Sand–clay | Triaxial test | <30 | 30~40 | >40 | Kumar 1997 |
Sand–clay | Triaxial test | <35 | 35~40 | >40 | Wood 2000 |
Sand–clay | Direct shear | <19~34 | - | >19~34 | Monkul 2007 |
Sand–fine sand | Direct shear | <11 | - | >11 | Cabalar 2011 |
Average values | - | <24.6 | 24.6~40.9 | >40.9 | - |
Reference | Soil | Structure | Test Type | Interface Thickness |
---|---|---|---|---|
Uesugi 1988 | sand | steel | direct shear test | 5 D50 |
DeJong et al., 2003 | sand | aluminum plate | direct shear test | 5~8 D50 |
Hu 2002, 2004 | quartz sand | steel plate | direct shear test | 5 D50 |
Frost et al., 2002 | sand | geomembrane | direct shear test | 2~6 D50 |
Zhang 2006 | gravel | steel | direct shear test | 5~6 D50 |
Pra-ai 2017 | Fontainebleau sand | steel plate | direct shear test | 10~12 D50 |
Tehrani 2016 | sand | brass model pile | axial load test | 3.2~4.2 D50 (D50 = 0.65 mm) |
Martinez 2017 | sand | steel sleeves | cone penetration test | 5~7 D50 |
Valencia 2018 | sand | brass model pile | tensile load test | 1.7 to 2.4 mm (D50 = 0.62 mm) |
Reference | Soil | Structure | Test Type | Interface Thickness |
---|---|---|---|---|
Martinez 2018 | kaolin clay | steel | direct shear test | about 0.25 mm (D50 is unknown) |
Yavari 2016 | kaolin clay | concrete plate | direct shear test | less than 1 mm (D50 is 0.8 μm) |
Di Donna 2016 | illite clay | concrete | direct shear test | unknown |
Maghsoodi 2019 | kaolin clay | steel | direct shear test | unknown |
Chen 2015 | red clay | concrete | direct shear test | unknown |
Tiwari 2010 | sand/silty sand/elastic silt/lean clay | concrete/steel /wood | direct shear test | unknown |
Tiwari 2013 | sand/silty sand/elastic silt/lean clay | concrete/steel /wood | direct shear test | unknown |
Aksoy 2016 | sand–clay mixture | steel/wood | direct shear test | unknown |
Yazdani 2019 | kaolin clay | concrete | direct shear test | unknown |
Rmax (mm) | Sand: D50 = 0.5 mm | Clay: D50 = 0.002 mm | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Rn | Surface | Rn | Surface | |
0.001 | 0.002 | Smooth | 0.5 | Medium |
0.06 | 0.12 | Medium | 30 | High |
0.1 | 0.2 | High | - | - |
Test Description | Effective Friction Angle (°) | Cohesion or Adhesion (kPa) |
---|---|---|
6 °C, soil | 29 | 37.9 |
21 °C, soil | 25 | 35.5 |
6 °C, soil–concrete interface | 32 | 3.1 |
21 °C, soil–concrete interface | 32 | 7.5 |
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Yin, K.; Fauchille, A.-L.; Di Filippo, E.; Kotronis, P.; Sciarra, G. A Review of Sand–Clay Mixture and Soil–Structure Interface Direct Shear Test. Geotechnics 2021, 1, 260-306. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1020014
Yin K, Fauchille A-L, Di Filippo E, Kotronis P, Sciarra G. A Review of Sand–Clay Mixture and Soil–Structure Interface Direct Shear Test. Geotechnics. 2021; 1(2):260-306. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1020014
Chicago/Turabian StyleYin, Kexin, Anne-Laure Fauchille, Eugenia Di Filippo, Panagiotis Kotronis, and Giulio Sciarra. 2021. "A Review of Sand–Clay Mixture and Soil–Structure Interface Direct Shear Test" Geotechnics 1, no. 2: 260-306. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1020014