Relationship between Sources of Dietary Fiber Intake and Homocysteine Metabolism in Relation to Serum Homocysteine Concentrations
by
, ,
Akiko Tajima
1,*
,
Yoshinori Kubo
2
,
Sayaka Horiguchi
1,
Kumiko Shoji
1,
Yasuo Kagawa
1 and
Terue Kawabata
1 1
Faculty of Nutrition, Kagawa Nutrition University, 3-9-21 Chiyoda, Sakado, Saitama 350-0288, Japan
2
Division of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Anatomy, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta Tsukinowa-cho, Otsu, Shiga 520-2192, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Dietetics 2024, 3(3), 308-317; https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics3030024
Submission received: 31 March 2024
/
Revised: 2 June 2024
/
Accepted: 15 August 2024
/
Published: 26 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dietary Supplementation for Human Inflammation)
Abstract
:While homocysteine is produced as an intermediate metabolite during methionine metabolism, increased blood homocysteine levels are associated with various diseases. In a previous cross-sectional study, we reported a significant negative association between the serum concentrations of homocysteine in 227 young women and their dietary fiber intake. In the present study, we examined the relationship between dietary fiber intake from food sources and serum levels of homocysteine and its metabolites. Homocysteine and its metabolites 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5MTHF), cystathionine, glycine, methionine, and S-adenosyl-methionine were measured using LC-MS/MS. The soluble, insoluble, and total fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms was significantly inversely correlated with the homocysteine concentrations. Furthermore, the soluble, insoluble, and total fiber intake from fruits was significantly positively associated with the serum 5MTHF concentrations, while the fiber intake from mushrooms was positively correlated with the cystathionine concentration and negatively correlated with the methionine and glycine concentrations. These results suggest that ingesting dietary fiber in the form of fruits and mushrooms maintains a low concentration of homocysteine by activating two different homocysteine-scavenging metabolic pathways.
1. Introduction
In 1969, McCully found that patients with hyperhomocysteinemia develop atherosclerotic thrombotic lesions at a young age [1] and suggested that elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood may factor into these developments [2]. Since that report, the association between homocysteine and atherosclerosis has attracted significant attention. Homocysteine is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease [3,4], stroke [5], cognitive impairment [6], and bone fracture [7], and is also associated with pregnancy complications [8,9,10,11,12,13,14] and neural tube defects [15,16].
Homocysteine, which has been associated with various diseases, is produced in the body during the metabolism of the essential amino acid methionine [17]. Methionine is found in a variety of protein-rich foods, including meat, eggs, dairy products, and beans, rendering the formation of homocysteine unavoidable.
On the other hand, there are two major pathways for eliminating the homocysteine produced in the body: its remethylation into methionine by methionine synthase (MS) or betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) and its conversion into cystathionine by cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) in the transculturation pathway [18]. Thus, even if homocysteine is produced in the body, it may be metabolized into different substances, thus curtailing homocysteine levels in the body. In a cross-sectional study of young women, we previously reported significant negative associations between their serum homocysteine concentrations, dietary fiber intake, and fruit and mushroom intake [19]. However, with no similar studies found, it is unclear how specific sources of dietary fiber affect serum homocysteine levels and serum homocysteine metabolism. In this study, we decided to examine the relationship between consuming different dietary fiber sources and serum homocysteine concentrations and the relationship between dietary fiber and homocysteine metabolites in the blood. We believe that these studies will lead to further hypotheses on the mechanisms of homocysteine metabolism and boosting homocysteine metabolism through diet.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Used for Analysis
This cross-sectional study included 227 healthy young women aged 18–25, with further details provided in [19]. In short, surveys related to the participants’ exercise habits, smoking statuses, and eating habits were conducted on the first day of the study, and dietary surveys using the standard quantity recording method were conducted from the second to the eighth day. The day after the completion of the dietary records, morning physical measurements, blood pressure measurements, and fasting blood samples were taken.
2.2. Measurement of Serum Homocysteine Metabolites
A total of 14 homocysteine metabolites were measured in the collected blood sera, namely 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5MTHF), betaine, choline, cystathionine, cysteine, dimethylglycine (DMG), glycine, methionine, S-adenosyl methionine (SAM), S-adenosyl-homocysteine (SAH), serine, taurine, folic acid (FA), and riboflavin, and analyzed using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) [20].
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The data normality was confirmed using the Shapiro–Wilk W test. In the case of a non-normal distribution, Box–Cox transformation was performed to normalize the distribution as much as possible. Variables with a normal distribution are presented as means ± standard deviation, while variables with a non-normal distribution are presented as medians (25th and 75th percentile values). Multiple regression analysis was performed with serum homocysteine concentration as the dependent variable and dietary fiber intake by food group as the explanatory variable. Only food groups corresponding to a dietary fiber intake greater than 50 mg (median, per 1000 kcal) were analyzed. The adjustment factors in the multiple regression analysis were age, BMI, menstrual cycle, pill compliance, and physical activity for Model 1, with vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 additionally included for Model 2, and vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic/acid intake included for Model 3. Furthermore, the dietary fiber intake by food group deemed significant in the multiple regression analysis was divided into tertiles, and an analysis of covariance was performed, with serum homocysteine concentration as the dependent variable and significant factors subjected to multiple comparisons. The adjustment factors in the analysis of covariance were age, BMI, menstrual cycle, pill compliance, physical activity, and vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic/acid intake.
The menstrual cycle was determined by asking about the date of the last menstrual period and the number of days from the end of menstruation to the start of the next menstruation, and the menstrual cycle phase (follicular phase, luteal phase, menstrual phase) on the day of blood collection was estimated. If unknown, it was classified as “unknown” and divided into four categories, which were used as adjustment factors in the analysis. Pill compliance was determined by asking whether or not participants had the habit of taking the pill. The pill is a medication made from a combination of progesterone and estrogen that is prescribed for the purposes of relieving menstrual pain and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and stabilizing the menstrual cycle. Participants were instructed not to change their usual lifestyle while participating in the study. That is, if they were in the habit of taking drugs or supplements before participating in the study, they were required to take them during their participation in the study. Conversely, if they were not taking the drug or supplement prior to participating in the study, they were instructed to avoid taking it anew during the study period. Intakes of vitamins such as B6 and B12 were calculated as the sum of both dietary and supplemental intakes.
All the statistical analyses were performed using JMP Pro ver. 16 (SAS Institute Index Inc., Cary, NC, USA), with a significance level of less than 5%.
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics
Table 1 shows the serum concentrations of the homocysteine metabolites. The subjects’ median (25th and 75th percentiles) serum 5MTHF, serum cystathionine, and serum glycine concentrations were 0.019 (0.014, 0.024) µmol/L, 0.090 (0.073, 0.111) µmol/L, and 201.5 (179.5, 224.5) µmol/L. The mean ± standard deviation of the serum methionine concentrations was 24.5 ± 3.7 µmol/L.
3.2. Serum Homocysteine Concentrations in Relation to Dietary Fiber Sources by Food Group
The relationship between the serum homocysteine concentrations and the dietary fiber sources by food group is shown in Table 2. In Model 1, adjusted for age, BMI, menstrual cycle, pill status, and physical activity, there was a significant negative association between the serum homocysteine concentrations and insoluble fiber and total fiber from green and yellow vegetables; soluble fiber and total fiber from other vegetables; and soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber from fruits and mushrooms. In Model 2, in which vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 intake was added to the adjustment factors in Model 1, the association with soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total dietary fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms remained. However, the associations with soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from green vegetables and other vegetables found to be significantly negatively associated with the serum homocysteine concentrations in Model 1 disappeared. Model 3, for which folic/acid intake was added to the adjustment factors included in Model 2, showed significant negative associations between soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms; insoluble fiber and total fiber intake from favorite beverages; and the serum homocysteine concentrations.
3.3. Serum Homocysteine Concentration in Relation to Dietary Fiber Sources (Tertiles) by Food Group
The relationship between the serum homocysteine concentrations and the soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total dietary fiber (tertiles) consumed from fruits and mushrooms is shown in Table 3. When applying the same adjustment factors as those in Model 3 in Table 2, they were significantly associated with the soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms (fruits: p = 0.0104, p = 0.0052, p = 0.0054, respectively; mushrooms: p = 0.0350, p = 0.0052, p = 0.0050).
Further multiple comparisons were made regarding the relationship between the participants’ soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms and their serum homocysteine concentrations. The results (Figure 1) showed that the serum homocysteine concentrations were significantly lower in the third tertile (T3) than in the first tertile (T1), corresponding to soluble fiber from fruit (p = 0.0040), while they were also lower in the third tertile (T3) than in the first tertile (T1) and lower in the third tertile (T3) than in the second tertile (T2), corresponding to insoluble fiber and total dietary fiber from fruit (insoluble fiber; p = 0.0093, p = 0.0029, respectively; total fiber; p = 0.0037, p = 0.0080, respectively). Mushrooms showed significantly lower values in the third tertile (T3) than the first tertile (T1) for soluble fiber (p = 0.0103) and significantly lower values in the third tertile (T3) than the first tertile (T1) and the third tertile (T3) than the second tertile (T2) for insoluble fiber and total fiber (insoluble fiber; p = 0.0093, p = 0.0029, respectively; total fiber; p = 0.0106, p = 0.0025, respectively).
3.4. Homocysteine Metabolites in Relation to Dietary Fiber Sources by Food Group
The relationships between the homocysteine metabolites and dietary fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms are shown in Table 4. There was a significant positive association between the serum 5MTHF concentrations and the soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from fruits (p = 0.0037, p = 0.0029, p = 0.0025, respectively). Significant positive associations were found between the serum cystathionine concentrations and the soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from mushrooms (p = 0.0108, p = 0.0225, p = 0.0207, respectively), while this intake was significantly negatively associated with the serum methionine concentrations (p = 0.0144, p = 0.0249, p = 0.0229, respectively). Furthermore, there was a significant negative association between the serum glycine concentrations and the insoluble fiber and total fiber intake from mushrooms (p = 0.0369, p = 0.0357, respectively).
4. Discussion
Our study revealed a significant negative correlation between soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms and serum homocysteine concentrations. That is, the study participants consuming more soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total dietary fiber in the form of fruits and mushrooms exhibited lower serum homocysteine levels, which was consistent with our previous findings [19]. The high quantity of dietary fiber in these foods likely contributes to this effect. While previous studies have also highlighted the negative relationship between the homocysteine levels in the blood and dietary fiber intake, our investigation has extended these findings by considering various dietary fiber sources and homocysteine metabolites. These results provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the impact of the quality of dietary fiber on homocysteine regulation.
The most abundant dietary fiber in fruits is in the form of pectin and fructooligosaccharides, both of which constitute soluble dietary fiber [21]. These soluble dietary fibers from fruits were significantly positively correlated with the participants’ serum 5MTHF concentrations. Since folate in the blood is present primarily in the form of 5MTHF, we chose to measure this metabolite in our study. Previous studies have shown that human feces contain 5 to 15 times the amount of folate ingested [22]. In addition, since the effect of folic/acid intake was removed from the analysis in this study, it is possible that the serum 5MTHF concentrations were increased by the folate produced by intestinal bacteria rather than by ingested folic/acid from the diet. A previous study examining the intercaecal administration of trihydrogen-labeled 3H-para-aminobenzoic acid reported that the administration of oligofructose with enteric bacteria, such as Bifidobacteria, which synthesize folate, increased the folate levels in the livers of rats on a low-folate diet [23]. On this basis, we hypothesized that the subjects with highly soluble, insoluble, and total fiber intake from fruits had higher serum 5MTHF concentrations due to folate being produced by their intestinal bacteria, which stimulated remethylation by activating MS, thus resulting in lower serum homocysteine concentrations.
In the results of this study, subjects with a high dietary fiber intake from mushrooms showed higher serum cystathionine concentrations and lower serum methionine and glycine concentrations, possibly indicating that homocysteine was not metabolized into methionine by MS but was metabolized into cystathionine by CBS. Furthermore, the lower serum glycine concentration in the subjects with a higher dietary fiber intake suggests that glycine was consumed in the production of GSH from γ-glutamylcysteine in the transsulfuration pathway. Based on these findings, we can speculate that the dietary fiber in mushrooms may activate the transsulfuration pathway, thereby reducing serum homocysteine concentrations. However, given that our study is observational, intervention studies are needed to prove this hypothesis.
As previously described by us in [19], the dietary fiber found in mushrooms is β-glucan [24], known to exert its antioxidant effect by scavenging active oxygen species [25]. Therefore, it is possible that the antioxidant effect of β-glucan promoted the activation of the transsulfuration pathway. However, no previous studies have examined the relationship between serum homocysteine concentrations and dietary factors to this extent, including the homocysteine metabolic pathways; thus, this hypothesis is not yet fully supported.
Meanwhile, the abundance of eritadenine in mushrooms was previously considered in studying the effect of mushrooms on reducing homocysteine levels [26]. In addition, a previous study [27] showed that shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) were able to significantly reduce the high levels of homocysteine in the sera of folic-acid- and vitamin-B12-deficient mice, also corroborating eritadenine’s effect. Therefore, the reduction in serum homocysteine levels observed in the present study and ascribed to the dietary fiber content of mushrooms may be otherwise attributed to their eritadenine content. Mushrooms are also high in vitamin D, an important vitamin that promotes the synthesis of CBS, central to homocysteine metabolism, and demonstrably reduces homocysteine levels and increases cystathionine and cysteine levels [28]. In this study, the variables of dietary fiber in mushrooms and reduced serum homocysteine concentrations were considered. However, eritadenine and vitamin D content are unrelated to dietary fiber; thus, the effects of eritadenine and vitamin D may have interfered with our results. In any case, further work is needed to elucidate the mechanism of mushrooms’ ability to lower homocysteine levels in the blood.
This study did not examine total dietary effects. However, an overall higher dietary quality, as reflected according to the Food Compass Score (including dietary fiber), has previously been associated with decreased homocysteine levels [29]. In the present study, it is possible that the dietary fiber from fruits and mushrooms may have been associated with serum homocysteine due to dietary synergism.
The study data were not stratified by the CC, CT, or TT polymorphisms of MTHFR. However, the highest homocysteine levels in the blood are represented by the TT form, while several diseases have been specifically associated with low activity of the TT form of MTHFR [30]. Therefore, the benefits of dietary fiber hypothesized in this study should be verified according to the TT polymorphism in the future.
5. Conclusions
In this study, the amounts of soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber ingested in the form of fruits were significantly positively associated with the participants’ serum 5MTHF concentrations. This suggests that the dietary fiber ingested from fruits was fermented by their intestinal bacteria and produced folate, which activated MS and promoted remethylation. Their soluble and insoluble dietary fiber and total dietary fiber intake in the form of mushrooms was significantly positively associated with their serum cystathionine concentrations and negatively associated with their serum methionine and glycine concentrations. This suggests that the dietary fiber in mushrooms activates CBS, metabolizing homocysteine into cystathionine and thereby enhancing the transsulfuration pathway. These results suggest that dietary fiber from fruits and mushrooms may be involved in homocysteine scavenging in the serum by activating two different pathways of homocysteine metabolism.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; methodology, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S., Y.K. (Yasuo Kagawa) and T.K.; software, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; validation, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), K.S., Y.K. (Yasuo Kagawa) and T.K.; formal analysis, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; investigation, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; resources, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; data curation, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.T.; writing—review and editing, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S., Y.K. (Yasuo Kagawa) and T.K.; visualization, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; supervision, A.T., Y.K. (Yoshinori Kubo), S.H., K.S. and T.K.; project administration, Y.K. (Yasuo Kagawa), and T.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Kagawa Nutrition University (ID:204 October 2018).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all the subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets used and analyzed in this study are available from Kagawa Nutrition University upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
Relationship of serum homocysteine concentration with dietary fiber intake by food group (After analysis of covariance, only factors that were significant were subjected to multiple comparisons). Covariates; age, BMI, menstrual cycle, being on the pill or not, physical activity, vitamin B6, B12 folic acid intake. Six subjects in T1 did not consume fruits. Seventeen T1 subjects did not consume mushrooms.
Figure 1.
Relationship of serum homocysteine concentration with dietary fiber intake by food group (After analysis of covariance, only factors that were significant were subjected to multiple comparisons). Covariates; age, BMI, menstrual cycle, being on the pill or not, physical activity, vitamin B6, B12 folic acid intake. Six subjects in T1 did not consume fruits. Seventeen T1 subjects did not consume mushrooms.
Table 1.
Concentrations of homocysteine metabolites in serum.
| Variables | Overall (n = 227) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 5MTHF | (µmol/L) | 0.019 | [0.014, 0.024] |
| Betaine | (µmol/L) | 39.1 | ±9.1 |
| Choline | (µmol/L) | 7.5 | ±1.4 |
| Cystathionine | (µmol/L) | 0.090 | [0.073, 0.111] |
| Cysteine | (µmol/L) | 198.4 | ±20.5 |
| DMG | (µmol/L) | 3.0 | [2.5, 3.6] |
| Glycine | (µmol/L) | 201.5 | [179.5, 224.5] |
| Homocysteine | (µmol/L) | 6.4 | [5.5, 7.4] |
| Methionine | (µmol/L) | 24.5 | ±3.7 |
| Riboflavin | (µmol/L) | 0.012 | [0.008, 0.017] |
| SAH | (µmol/L) | 0.014 | [0.012, 0.017] |
| SAM | (µmol/L) | 0.056 | ±0.008 |
| Serine | (µmol/L) | 148.7 | ±24.6 |
| Taurine | (µmol/L) | 112.3 | ±22.0 |
| FA | (µmol/L) | 0.001 | [0.001, 0.002] |
± SD or median [25th, 75th percentiles]; 5MTHF: 5-methyltetrahydrofolate; DMG: dimethylglycine; SAM: S-adenosyl-methionine; SAH: S-adenosyl-homocysteine; FA: folic acid.
Table 2.
Serum homocysteine concentrations in relation to dietary fiber sources by food group.
| Model 1 ¶ | Model 2 ¶ | Model 3 ¶ | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (mg/1000 kcal) | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | |
| Cereals | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.046 | 0.4986 | −0.066 | 0.3269 | −0.103 | 0.1264 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.075 | 0.2668 | −0.102 | 0.1349 | −0.124 | 0.0630 | |
| Total fiber | −0.068 | 0.3157 | −0.095 | 0.1647 | −0.125 | 0.0630 | |
| Tubers and root vegetables | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.020 | 0.7656 | −0.027 | 0.6977 | 0.005 | 0.9385 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.049 | 0.4753 | −0.048 | 0.4945 | −0.011 | 0.8741 | |
| Total fiber | −0.041 | 0.5468 | −0.043 | 0.5411 | −0.007 | 0.9243 | |
| Nuts | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.007 | 0.9147 | −0.016 | 0.8167 | 0.007 | 0.9181 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | 0.009 | 0.8933 | 0.000 | 0.9988 | 0.004 | 0.9485 | |
| Total fiber | 0.007 | 0.9213 | −0.002 | 0.9735 | 0.004 | 0.9501 | |
| Green and yellow vegetables | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.130 | 0.0531 | −0.111 | 0.1274 | 0.002 | 0.9762 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.144 | 0.0321 | −0.130 | 0.0746 | −0.022 | 0.7942 | |
| Total fiber | −0.142 | 0.0351 | −0.127 | 0.0831 | −0.016 | 0.8440 | |
| Other vegetables | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.148 | 0.0273 | −0.124 | 0.0796 | −0.030 | 0.7014 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.127 | 0.0583 | −0.101 | 0.1558 | 0.014 | 0.8592 | |
| Total fiber | −0.136 | 0.0424 | −0.110 | 0.1200 | 0.001 | 0.9904 | |
| Fruits | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.206 | 0.0022 | −0.196 | 0.0046 | −0.149 | 0.0352 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.190 | 0.0048 | −0.183 | 0.0080 | −0.146 | 0.0364 | |
| Total fiber | −0.199 | 0.0031 | −0.192 | 0.0056 | −0.150 | 0.0319 | |
| Mushrooms | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.199 | 0.0031 | −0.178 | 0.0089 | −0.141 | 0.0398 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.195 | 0.0037 | −0.174 | 0.0107 | −0.138 | 0.0436 | |
| Total fiber | −0.197 | 0.0034 | −0.176 | 0.0100 | −0.150 | 0.0319 | |
| Seaweed § | Total fiber | −0.107 | 0.1094 | −0.093 | 0.1614 | −0.067 | 0.3097 |
| Pulses | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.126 | 0.0670 | −0.110 | 0.1120 | −0.045 | 0.5279 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.065 | 0.3434 | −0.041 | 0.5592 | 0.046 | 0.5367 | |
| Total fiber | −0.086 | 0.2114 | −0.064 | 0.3590 | 0.018 | 0.8103 | |
| Confectionery | Soluble dietary fiber | 0.009 | 0.8965 | −0.024 | 0.7284 | −0.038 | 0.5787 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.005 | 0.9439 | −0.036 | 0.5980 | −0.046 | 0.4953 | |
| Total fiber | −0.009 | 0.9896 | −0.033 | 0.6301 | −0.044 | 0.5186 | |
| Seasonings and spices | Soluble dietary fiber | 0.081 | 0.2351 | 0.116 | 0.0908 | 0.123 | 0.0665 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.020 | 0.7670 | 0.016 | 0.8161 | 0.047 | 0.4894 | |
| Total fiber | 0.007 | 0.9154 | 0.045 | 0.5167 | 0.071 | 0.2995 | |
n = 227. Multiple regression analysis with serum homocysteine concentration as dependent variable and dietary fiber sources by food group as explanatory variables. Only factors corresponding to a total fiber intake greater than 50 mg/1000 kcal (median) were analyzed. §: No data on dietary fiber intake from seaweed because soluble and insoluble fiber are not listed in Japan’s Standard Tables of Food Composition, 2015. ¶: Model 1 is adjusted for age, BMI, menstrual cycle, pill use, and physical activity; Model 2 is adjusted according to Model 1 + vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 intake; Model 3 is adjusted according to Model 2 + folic/acid intake.
Table 3.
Serum homocysteine concentration in relation to dietary fiber sources (tertiles) by food group.
Table 3.
Serum homocysteine concentration in relation to dietary fiber sources (tertiles) by food group.
| Amount of Intake (mg/1000 kcal) | Amount of Intake (mg/1000 kcal) | Amount of Intake (mg/1000 kcal) | p Value § | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T1 (n = 75) | T2 (n = 76) | T3 (n = 76) | |||
| Fruits | Soluble dietary fiber | 33.9 [10.8, 62.7] | 125.6 [87.5, 166.5] | 283.2 [213.1, 395.5] | 0.0104 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | 77.7 [29.1, 122.8] | 286.3 [231.2, 363.0] | 652.4 [495.4, 803.2] | 0.0052 | |
| Total fiber | 112.7 [42.8, 178.6] | 424.8 [314.8, 546.4] | 915.9 [735.4, 1187.0] | 0.0054 | |
| Mushrooms | Soluble dietary fiber | 2.2 [0.0, 4.1] | 11.0 [8.4, 15.2] | 25.6 [18.7, 34.2] | 0.0350 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | 55.8 [7.6, 84.5] | 208.1 [153.1, 245.5] | 495.1 [357.3, 640.5] | 0.0052 | |
| Total fiber | 59.5 [8.0, 87.6] | 220.5 [168.3, 262.6] | 523.1 [380.1, 671.0] | 0.0050 |
n = 227, medians [25th, 75th percentiles]; § analysis of covariance with serum homocysteine concentration as dependent variable and soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber intake from fruits and mushrooms as explanatory variables; covariates: age, BMI, menstrual cycle, being on the pill or not, physical activity, vitamin B6 and B12 folic/acid intake.
Table 4.
Homocysteine metabolites in relation to dietary fiber sources by food group in multiple regression analysis.
Table 4.
Homocysteine metabolites in relation to dietary fiber sources by food group in multiple regression analysis.
| Serum | |||||||||||
| 5MTHF | Betaine | Choline | Cystathionine | Cysteine | |||||||
| (mg/1000 kcal) | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | |
| Fruits | Soluble dietary fiber | 0.192 | 0.0037 | 0.125 | 0.0800 | −0.011 | 0.8777 | −0.037 | 0.6061 | −0.050 | 0.4824 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | 0.193 | 0.0029 | 0.074 | 0.2885 | −0.034 | 0.6313 | −0.047 | 0.5074 | −0.066 | 0.3506 | |
| Total fiber | 0.198 | 0.0025 | 0.091 | 0.1978 | −0.029 | 0.6887 | −0.047 | 0.5147 | −0.062 | 0.3834 | |
| Mushrooms | Soluble dietary fiber | 0.070 | 0.2786 | 0.105 | 0.1261 | −0.012 | 0.8668 | 0.177 | 0.0108 | −0.012 | 0.8586 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | 0.050 | 0.4382 | 0.032 | 0.6429 | −0.089 | 0.2015 | 0.159 | 0.0225 | −0.101 | 0.1459 | |
| Total fiber | 0.052 | 0.4221 | 0.036 | 0.6017 | −0.086 | 0.2183 | 0.161 | 0.0207 | −0.097 | 0.1612 | |
| Serum | |||||||||||
| DMG | Glycine | Methionine | SAM | SAH | |||||||
| (mg/1000 kcal) | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | |
| Fruits | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.051 | 0.4825 | −0.028 | 0.6927 | 0.038 | 0.5761 | −0.025 | 0.7293 | 0.047 | 0.5039 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.043 | 0.5513 | −0.012 | 0.8581 | 0.035 | 0.6025 | 0.012 | 0.8667 | 0.038 | 0.5882 | |
| Total fiber | −0.047 | 0.5117 | −0.016 | 0.8134 | 0.034 | 0.5830 | 0.001 | 0.9925 | 0.040 | 0.5698 | |
| Mushrooms | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.005 | 0.9452 | −0.126 | 0.0622 | −0.161 | 0.0144 | −0.030 | 0.6675 | −0.006 | 0.9339 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.030 | 0.6736 | −0.141 | 0.0369 | −0.148 | 0.0249 | −0.020 | 0.7724 | −0.004 | 0.9563 | |
| Total fiber | −0.029 | 0.6829 | −0.142 | 0.0357 | −0.150 | 0.0229 | −0.021 | 0.7694 | −0.003 | 0.9632 | |
| Serum | |||||||||||
| Serine | Taurine | FA | Riboflavin | ||||||||
| (mg/1000 kcal) | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | β Coefficient | p Value | |||
| Fruits | Soluble dietary fiber | 0.020 | 0.7803 | 0.008 | 0.9156 | −0.063 | 0.3776 | −0.034 | 0.6459 | ||
| Insoluble dietary fiber | 0.005 | 0.9397 | 0.020 | 0.7821 | −0.090 | 0.2021 | −0.113 | 0.1155 | |||
| Total fiber | 0.011 | 0.8744 | 0.016 | 0.8226 | −0.084 | 0.2358 | −0.095 | 0.1910 | |||
| Mushrooms | Soluble dietary fiber | −0.010 | 0.8916 | −0.110 | 0.1160 | −0.058 | 0.4024 | −0.013 | 0.8569 | ||
| Insoluble dietary fiber | −0.079 | 0.2633 | −0.055 | 0.4322 | −0.009 | 0.8968 | −0.017 | 0.8066 | |||
| Total fiber | −0.076 | 0.2820 | −0.058 | 0.4069 | −0.012 | 0.8618 | −0.016 | 0.8185 | |||
Multiple regression analysis with serum homocysteine metabolites as dependent variables and dietary fiber sources by food group as explanatory variables. Covariates: age, BMI, menstrual cycle, being on the pill or not, physical activity, vitamin B6, B12 and folic/acid intake; 5MTHF: 5-methyltetrahydrofolate; DMG: dimethylglycine; SAM: S-adenosyl-methionine; SAH: S-adenosyl-homocysteine; FA: folic acid.
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Tajima, A.; Kubo, Y.; Horiguchi, S.; Shoji, K.; Kagawa, Y.; Kawabata, T. Relationship between Sources of Dietary Fiber Intake and Homocysteine Metabolism in Relation to Serum Homocysteine Concentrations. Dietetics 2024, 3, 308-317. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics3030024
AMA Style
Tajima A, Kubo Y, Horiguchi S, Shoji K, Kagawa Y, Kawabata T. Relationship between Sources of Dietary Fiber Intake and Homocysteine Metabolism in Relation to Serum Homocysteine Concentrations. Dietetics. 2024; 3(3):308-317. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics3030024
Chicago/Turabian StyleTajima, Akiko, Yoshinori Kubo, Sayaka Horiguchi, Kumiko Shoji, Yasuo Kagawa, and Terue Kawabata. 2024. "Relationship between Sources of Dietary Fiber Intake and Homocysteine Metabolism in Relation to Serum Homocysteine Concentrations" Dietetics 3, no. 3: 308-317. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics3030024
APA StyleTajima, A., Kubo, Y., Horiguchi, S., Shoji, K., Kagawa, Y., & Kawabata, T. (2024). Relationship between Sources of Dietary Fiber Intake and Homocysteine Metabolism in Relation to Serum Homocysteine Concentrations. Dietetics, 3(3), 308-317. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics3030024
