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Review

Essential Amino Acids and Fatty Acids in Novel Foods: Emerging Nutritional Sources and Implications

by
Lucia Maddaloni
1,*,
Lorenzo Maria Donini
1,
Laura Gobbi
2,
Luca Muzzioli
1 and
Giuliana Vinci
2,*
1
Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Regina Elena, 324, 00185 Rome, Italy
2
Department of Management, Sapienza University of Rome, Via del Castro Laurenziano, 9, 00161 Rome, Italy
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Dietetics 2025, 4(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4020014
Submission received: 21 January 2025 / Revised: 25 March 2025 / Accepted: 27 March 2025 / Published: 2 April 2025
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Abstract

:
Essential amino acids and essential fatty acids are vital nutrients that must be obtained from the diet. However, traditional sources face limitations amid increasing global food security and sustainability challenges. This study aims to evaluate the nutritional potential of novel foods, including microalgae (e.g., spirulina and chlorella), fungi (e.g., oyster and shiitake mushrooms), edible insects (e.g., mealworms and migratory locusts), and unconventional plants (e.g., water lentils and canihua). The study will compare their amino acid and fatty acid profiles with those of conventional animal and plant sources. The comparative analysis conducted in this study reveals that these innovative foods offer balanced and high-quality protein and lipid profiles, and contribute essential nutrients needed to prevent deficiencies and support metabolic health. Significantly, the integration of these novel foods into established dietary patterns, such as the Mediterranean diet, has the potential to enhance nutritional quality while promoting environmental sustainability. In conclusion, the adoption of these innovative food sources provides a viable strategy to meet nutritional demands and address global health and ecological challenges, paving the way toward a more resilient and sustainable food system.

1. Introduction

In recent years, scientific and industrial interest in novel foods has increased exponentially, driven by the need to find sustainable, nutritious food sources that meet global food security challenges. The European Union defines novel foods as foods or ingredients that were not consumed to any significant extent before 15 May 1997. It includes a wide range of products, including innovative algae, insects, fungi, and plant extracts [1]. The global novel food market is steadily expanding, with significant growth in recent years. According to the most recent estimates, the global market’s value for novel foods exceeded 5 billion dollar in 2023 and is expected to reach $25 billion by 2030, with a compound annual growth rate exceeding 9 percent [2]. In Europe, the novel food market is driven by the growing demand for alternative protein foods, with particular attention to proteins derived from insects, algae, and other novel sources. This trend is also supported by European regulations that promote developing and approving novel foods, facilitating the market entry of safe new products and being nutritionally sound [1,3].
Therefore, novel foods can be an innovative solution to ensure an adequate supply of nutrients (e.g., amino acids, fatty acids, fiber, etc.) while contributing to global food security and environmental sustainability. Essential amino acids and essential fatty acids are key components for the proper functioning of the human body. Essential amino acids (EAAs) (phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine), i.e., those amino acids that the human body is unable to synthesize on its own, are essential for numerous metabolic functions (e.g., protein synthesis, growth, muscle recovery, proper functioning of the immune system, production of neurotransmitters essential for brain function) [4]. Therefore, a diet rich in alternative sources of these nutrients can contribute not only to individual health; in fact, a deficiency can lead to problems such as growth retardation, loss of muscle mass, fatigue, and a weakened immune system [5,6]. Therefore, it is important to ensure adequate intake of these nutrients through a balanced dietary pattern that includes high-quality protein sources such as meat, fish, and eggs. Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are indispensable dietary components that our bodies cannot synthesize and must therefore be obtained from food. They are fundamental to building cellular membranes and serve as precursors to bioactive compounds such as eicosanoids, which regulate inflammation and immune responses [7]. Omega-3 fatty acids including alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and its longer-chain derivatives, eicosapentanenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are well known for supporting cardiovascular health and brain function. On the other hand, omega-6 fatty acids, primarily linoleic acid (LA), play critical roles in skin integrity, growth, and cellular signaling [8,9]. Maintaining a balanced intake of these fatty acids is essential because an imbalance, often seen in modern diets, can contribute to chronic inflammatory conditions. In this context, novel food sources such as microalgae, edible insects, and unconventional plant oils are emerging as sustainable alternatives that may help restore the optimal balance of EFAs in our diets [8]. The Mediterranean dietary style is an ideal model for ensuring adequate intake of EAAs and EFAs, as it is rich in essential fatty acids from foods such as extra-virgin olive oil, oily fish, and nuts, and essential amino acids provided by high-quality protein sources such as eggs, legumes, dairy products, fish, and lean meat. This dietary style not only ensures optimal intake of key health nutrients but also contributes to the prevention of chronic diseases by promoting physical and mental well-being through balanced and natural nutrition [10].
This literature review aims to analyze the current scientific evidence regarding the content and bioavailability of essential amino acids and essential fatty acids in novel foods regarded as traditional foods from non-EU countries. The objective is to understand the nutritional potential of these novel food sources and their contribution in the context of balanced and sustainable diets, as well as to identify possible gaps in current research and prospects for novel food development.

2. Materials and Methods

The framework of the study was the analysis of the nutritional composition, particularly the composition of essential amino acids and essential fatty acids, of novel foods as traditional foods from non-EU countries allowed by legislation (Regulation (EU) 2015/2283) on the European market [1]. All foods used only as additives or parts of dietary supplements were excluded from the review. The search was conducted in the following search engines: Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar. The following keywords were combined for the review: name of the novel food analyzed (e.g., spirulina, Chlorella, etc.), nutritional value, fatty acid, and amino acid. Searching using the keywords was conducted by focusing on the title and abstract. In addition, only articles and reviews that examined the nutritional composition, amino acid, and fatty acid composition of the selected novel foods were selected.

3. Nutritional Value of Novel Food

Proximal composition represents a key aspect of understanding the nutritional value of foods. It includes parameters such as energy, carbohydrate content, protein, fat etc., that provide a comprehensive view of the nutritional characteristics of foods. When it comes to novel foods, this analysis becomes even more important to assess their ability to supplement or replace traditional foods in the diet, as well as to address specific nutritional needs or contribute to a more sustainable diet [11]. Table 1 shows the proximate compositions in percent of the novel foods as traditional foods from non-EU countries examined. Algae are distinguished by their high protein and fiber content, as well as richness in minerals. For example, Spirulina platensis has a protein content of 71.34 percent by weight, exceeding that of traditional foods such as legumes (25 percent in lentils) and oily fish (20–25 percent) [12,13,14]. In addition, Ulva spp. contains up to 60.5 percent fiber, which is significantly higher than the whole grains (10–15%) used in the Mediterranean diet [13]. Despite these advantages, the lipid content of algae is low, e.g., 0.36% in Spirulina platensis [14]. However, some algae contain omega-3 fatty acids, making them a complementary plant source to fish [15]. Mushrooms, such as Pleurotus ostreatus, have a protein content between 13.67% and 22.29% [16,17,18]. Although lower than legumes, their amino acid profile and the presence of minerals such as iron and selenium make them valuable in the diet. For example, the fiber content in mushrooms can reach 38.67% in Ganoderma lucidum, exceeding that of traditional Mediterranean vegetables such as spinach or broccoli (about 3%) [19,20]. Mushrooms are also notable for their low-fat content (1.48% in Lentinula edodes), making them like Mediterranean vegetables such as courgettes and eggplant [19,20,21].
Insects represent one of the highest protein sources among novel foods, with values ranging from 50% to 76% in species such as Tenebrio molitor and Acheta domesticus [4,22]. These values are higher than those of beef (20–25%) and fish, offering a source of complete protein with all essential amino acids [21,22,23]. The lipid content is also significant, as demonstrated by the proximate composition of Acheta domesticus, which contains up to 43.9% fat, comparable to oily fish and rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, insects contain chitin, a type of fiber that, while offering metabolic benefits, is less digestible than plant fibers [22,24]. Plants such as Wolffia globosa and Canihua offer a protein content ranging from 16.7% to 26.76% [25,26], comparable to that of chickpeas (19%) [27]. Canihua also has a good fiber intake (5.8%), making it a whole grain. Moringa oleifera leaves are rich in antioxidants and minerals, with calcium and iron content comparable to that of green leafy vegetables in the Mediterranean diet, such as spinach and chard [28,29,30]. Baobab, with its fiber content (13.7 percent), far exceeds most Mediterranean fruits. Novel foods pose as viable and sustainable alternatives to the traditional foods of the Mediterranean diet. While algae offer superior protein and fiber, mushrooms and insects represent complementary protein sources rich in minerals and healthy lipids [28,31,32]. Finally, plants enrich the diet with fiber, protein, and antioxidants. However, their supplementation requires a stepwise approach, both for cultural reasons and for culinary adaptation. Insects, for example, present significant barriers to acceptance compared to more familiar proteins such as meat, fish, and legumes. Algae and plants, on the other hand, could be more easily introduced because of their versatility and functional properties [33,34].
Table 1. Proximate compositions (%) of novel food as traditional foods from non-EU countries (na: not analyzed).
Table 1. Proximate compositions (%) of novel food as traditional foods from non-EU countries (na: not analyzed).
NameCarbohydratesProteinFatFiberAshRef.
ALGAE
Spirulina platensis1.7347.0436.39na7.68[15]
na51.06na0.496.35[14]
6.8371.340.368.455.93[13]
Chlorella vulgaris11.8635.4512.189.189.5[35]
28.3538.8524.5na7.85[36]
Ulva spp.61.527.20.360.511[37]
39.4220.440.658.6130.88[38]
Porphyra spp.na31.32.145.7nd[39]
na34.22.25na9.07[40]
Laminaria spp.na10.8nano[41]
na0.530.85na2.44[42]
Esculenta Alariana0.911.5na2.45[42]
na11.52.05na32.28[43]
Gelidium spp.60.7720.61.23na9.3[44]
33.2614.192.1na12.82[45]
FUNGI
Pleurotus ostreatus43.4217.061.2123.638.22[16]
50.8722.293.1715.776.99[17]
72.19.0021.721.5719.066.04[18]
Lentinula edible59.3913.671.4813.975.76[21]
68.318.50.8na5.1[19]
Leafy grifola70.7119.343.84na6.07[46]
66.918.35.3na4.7[19]
Ganoderma lucidum73.617.21.95na1.85[19]
29.6116.453.4438.676.95[20]
Agaricus brasiliensis53.4529.82.25na8.9[19]
INSECT
Tenebrio molitorna23.2218.08na2.13[21]
na60.2119.1222.354.2[47]
2.2–26.2552.35–71.614.6–36.71.97–16.33.6–4.0[48]
Migratory locust4.0542.1618.914.215.72[34]
na61.2323na3.78[23]
13.4650.7934.93na2.42[33]
35.626.322.5nana[49]
18.651.97–71.2011.42–23.813.09–13.753.33–5.51[48]
Domestic achete1.60–7.5015.40–76.193.3–43.903.70–7.501.10–5.60[24]
4.660.2631.28no3.04[46]
na55.1829.0118.724.34[50]
Alphitobius diapernusna49.5126.4412.964.71[50]
PLANT
Wolffia globosa48.3126.760.4916.767.68[25]
na45.045.339.9820.43[51]
Kanihua50.916.7105.87.4[52]
51.0716.779.648.564.26[26]
59.912.876.33.1[53]
Baobab (pulp)74.95.33.613.74.9[31]
76.23.20.35.44.5[32]
Moringa oleifera29.825.35.7524.979.95[28]
9.18.11.72.1na[29]
na30.296.5na7.64[30]

4. Essential Amino Acids

Essential amino acids are those organic compounds that the human body is unable to synthesize on its own and therefore must be obtained through dietary intake. These include lysine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and histidine. Each performs specific functions that are fundamental to maintaining human health [27]. Their main function is to participate in protein synthesis, a process essential for the growth, maintenance, and repair of body tissues. In addition, some essential amino acids, such as leucine, are involved in the regulation of protein metabolism and the maintenance of muscle mass [54]. In contrast, others, such as tryptophan, play a key role in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, which regulates mood and sleep [6]. A deficiency in essential amino acids can have serious consequences for the organism, including a reduction in protein synthesis, loss of muscle mass, weakening of the immune system, growth retardation in children, and cognitive disorders. In addition, inadequate intake of essential amino acids can compromise nitrogen balance, adversely affecting overall metabolism [54]. Therefore, ensuring an adequate intake of essential amino acids through a varied and well-balanced dietary intake, including innovative and sustainable sources such as novel foods is crucial.

Novel Foods as a Source of Essential Amino Acids

Novel foods represent a promising alternative source of essential amino acids, offering a valuable contribution to address global nutritional challenges. Table 2 provides an overview of essential and non-essential amino acid contents for several novel foods, including algae, fungi, insects, and plants.
Table 2. Amino acid amount (mg/g of protein) of novel food as traditional foods from non-EU countries.
Table 2. Amino acid amount (mg/g of protein) of novel food as traditional foods from non-EU countries.
ALGAE
Essential Amino AcidNon-Essential Amino AcidRef.
NameLeucineTryptophaneMethioninePhenylalanineLysineThreonineIsoleucineValineCys-
teine		Histi-
dine		ProlineTyro-
sine		GlycineSerineArgin-
ine		AlanineAspartic AcidGlutamic Acid
Spirulina platensis55101428303336457102730323344476092[55]
39.69nd8.0719.0222.62nd25.3427.894.627.3922.9220.3421.2620.3526.1312.130.6949.63[13]
4.84nd19.82527.228.430.633.47.21021.525.83029.239.645.453.481.5[56]
Chlorella Vulgaris15.4nd3.39.416.113.255.234.1125.613.814.39.21817.816[57]
6.84nd1.54.25.65.245.016.44nd5.026.45.25.110.748.28.4410.510.74[35]
Ulva lactuca10.34nd6.7112.457.237.975.53.390.551.330.0074.358.158.334.8610.9414.8715.08[37]
0.090.150.160.210.380.1350.130.140.560.319nd0.0960.50.320.510.541.230.97[58]
7.1nd2.35.814.14.873.85.3nd1.080.752.75.544.066.8711.52nd10.32[38]
Porphyra spp.5.50.71.83.34.95.33.15.21.22.63.53.45.10.75.96.2nd10.2[39]
0.3nananana0.590.460.33nananana24.020.53 10.771.565.6[40]
Laminaria spp.8.2ndndna974.97.2nand5.8nd6.57.3nd7.518.817.9[41]
5.2na1.83.43.73.82.73.6nd1.63.91.84.13.63.45.26.28.5[42]
Alaria esculenta7.5na2.44.85.35.53.85.5nd1.65.12.95.75.24.818.98.420.1[42]
Gelidium spp.nanandnana26.85nandnananananana32.85nana171.4[44]
FUNGI
Pleurotus ostreatus13.56na10.3610.323.1810.41nana9.32na10.41nana10.45na10.03492.1212.04[16]
30.665.74.1617.927.0628.1817.9627.34.3215.4214.2210.228.615.725.9819.6336.9259.5[59]
Lentinula edodens1.29na0.420.831.911.010.621.050.080.840.820.540.891.042.451.171.734.93[60]
3.03nana3.22.980.661.049.0513.183.12nd0.841.53.980.421.06na9.71[61]
3.03na0.472.013.032.372.282.050.461.262.651.432.262.553.023.34.285.07[62]
Grifola Frondosa0.05ndnd0.261.561.430.120.96na1.53na1.771.532.913.022.151.618.01[46]
0.65na0.19na0.560.690.481.520.210.290.210.320.470.540.820.560.911.09[19]
Ganoderma lucidum1.12na0.53na0.450.970.730.950.410.281.080.470.80.70.770.781.472.98[19]
0.55na0.060.280.210.660.360.63na0.120.60.161.080.540.2211.171.2[20]
Agaricus brasiliensis1.26na0.38na1.081.160.782.58na0.411.140.580.870.881.11.29na2.54[19]
0.16na0.1340.190.190.38na0.223nd0.560.840.190.5180.3051.620.360.330.67[63]
INSECTS
Tenebrio molitor75.9nana34.326.254.832.149.2na28.995.967.26658.145.6100.997.4125.3[21]
53.12na31.6154.8747.9426.3673.8811.76nana47.9469.2865.8742.7964.5481.1477.13115.44[64]
37.9na6.216.324.612.721.428.83.814.926.734.728.717.3na33.832.137.3[65]
78.8na17.543.95242.849.471.3na35.576.681.159.650.559.476.578.8114.9[48]
locusta migratoria84.4na14.232.350.138.246.671na28.780.956.473.440.862127.372.1112.8[48]
77.38na10.5431.9865.5742.0429.2156.954.1520.4265.9247.0554.3243.2759.3397.8359.87112.78[23]
50.45.2920.336.423.329.241.84.715.643.136.339.422.238.456.447.462[23]
acheta domesticus7–38.01.3–431–9.83–23.85–32.27.4–16.54–29.05–45.0na2–17.2nananananananana[24]
38.0–65.04.0–6.89.0–1.4014.0–30.03.0–5.4016.65–36.026.0–44.510.7–45.04.0–8.015.2–22.511.5–35.62.50–31.810.4–3.5010.2–28.737.0–61.036.7–88.556.6–77.564.8–104.5[66]
Alphitobius diaperinus73.6na17.142.273.544.247.7648.432.171.361.650.246.659.179.594.7134.3[48]
74.7844.9822.2148.7673.7144.9848.4664.2na40.36nananananananana[50]
PLANT
Wolffia globosa78na1647564136481518443252505869120114[67]
25.914.51.833.911.83.528.36.40.56.1324.21.83.753.312.524.810.8[25]
canihua1.26na0.1730.861.050.480.90.140.280.60.451.040.230.951.022nana1.5[68]
2.47na1.21.52.151.341.381.70.650.971.30.932.11.583.371.6632.0955.25[69]
Baobab (pulp)54351935402736491320708.562336856.67584[31]
43na24417282248101222206293276336465[32]
Moringa oleifera (leaves)20.5na2.1336.827.6736.7731.822.1na30.88nananana21.45nanana[29]
77na155948414455162451364942586293150[67]
19.64.862.916.416.3713.5711.714.10.17.112.0326.51510.8717.830.3314.325.3[30]
na: not analyzed; nd: not detectable.
Among the most studied sources are algae, such as Spirulina and Chlorella, which have a complete amino acid profile and are rich in high-quality proteins [13,56]. Spirulina platensis also stands out for its high leucine content, which reaches 55 mg/g of protein, a value comparable to animal proteins [13,55,57]. However, algae show a lower content of some essential amino acids such as tryptophan (10 mg/g of protein) and methionine (14 mg/g of protein) than red meat, which has about 60–70 mg/g of leucine and 20–30 mg/g of methionine [13,27]. Another widely studied microalga is Chlorella vulgaris. This has moderate levels of lysine (16.1 mg/g) and threonine (13.2 mg/g), although still lower than traditional sources such as milk (85–90 mg/g of lysine and 40–45 mg/g of threonine) [35,57]. These microalgae are still close to animal proteins for some essential amino acids, such as isoleucine, and represent a valid integration in balanced diets. Despite having a low overall content of essential amino acids, their contribution of glutamate (up to 92 mg/g in Spirulina) contributes to the umami flavor of dishes, making them potential ingredients in innovative dishes with reduced intake of salts and additives [35].
In addition to microalgae, seaweeds such as Ulva lactuca and Porphyra spp. are also consumed today, which show a lower protein content than microalgae. For example, Ulva lactuca contains only 12.45 mg/g of phenylalanine and 6.71 mg/g of methionine [38,58], while traditional animal protein sources often exceed 30 mg/g of these amino acids. Although seaweeds are less rich in protein, they still offer complementary benefits due to their content of fiber, minerals, and antioxidants [42].
Although generally lower than animal sources and some plant alternatives, mushrooms are an interesting source of protein due to their content of essential and non-essential amino acids. Among the mushrooms included in the European list of novel food are Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom), Lentinula edodes (shiitake), Grifola frondosa (maitake), Ganoderma lucidum (reishi), and Agaricus brasiliensis. All these species have a good content of some essential amino acids, comparable to that found in some legumes. However, it is lower than some foods such as meat and fish. Pleurotus ostreatus has a leucine content that varies between 13.56 mg/g of protein and 30.66 mg/g of protein, depending on the cultivation conditions and the substrates used for the growth of the mushroom [16]. Furthermore, it has a high content of lysine (23.18–27.06 g/g of protein) compared to other mushroom species such as Agaricus brasiliensis (0.19–1.08 mg/g of protein) and Ganoderma lucidum (0.21–0.45 mg/g of protein) [16,59]. Also, the methionine content is lower (4.16–10.36 mg/g protein) than complete protein sources such as red meat (20.00–30.00 mg/g protein) or eggs (37 mg/g protein) [27]. The essential amino acid profile of other mushroom species is as that of Pleurotus ostreatus, with lower values for leucine, lysine, and methionine [59]. Furthermore, it should be noted that factors such as the origin of the samples tested and the species of fungus, as well as different analysis techniques, may result in different amino acid values [19,20].
However, mushrooms offer a good supply of non-essential amino acids such as glutamate that enhance their flavor and aroma. Therefore, mushrooms from an amino acid point of view can be considered as complementary foods in a balanced diet, useful for enriching dishes in nutrients but not as a main source of protein [20].
Insects are one of the most promising protein sources due to their high content of essential and non-essential amino acids, with profiles that approach, and in some cases exceed, those of traditional protein sources. Edible insects permitted by European legislation (Reg UE 2017/2470) for trade and consumption include Tenebrio molitor (mealworm), Locusta migratoria (migratory locust), Acheta domesticus (house cricket), and Alphitobius diaperinus (small grain earworm) [2]. Crickets and Tenebrio molitor larvae are distinguished by their high content of easily digestible proteins and the presence of all essential amino acids. In particular, the content of leucine, lysine, methionine, and valine is higher than traditional protein sources [21,70,71]. Tenebrio molitor showed the highest content of methionine (6.01–21.61 mg/g of protein) (Igor Jajić et al., 2020; Agnė Jankauskienė et al., 2024), followed by Alphitobius diapering (17.10–22.21 mg/g of protein) (Stanisław Kowalski) and Locusta migratoria (9.01–14.02 mg/g of protein) [71,72]. While for lysine (36.40–65.57 mg/g of protein) and phenylalanine (20.30–32.3 mg/g of protein), Locusta migratoria was the insect with the highest content, even higher than traditional protein [48].
Therefore, insects such as Tenebrio molitor and Locusta migratoria offer leucine, lysine, and valine comparable or higher levels than traditional animal protein sources, making them an ideal choice to supplement or replace animal protein in diets. Furthermore, the high methionine content in Tenebrio molitor is exciting, as this is often lacking in many plant sources such as legumes [21]. Therefore, this insect can be fed as a supplement in low-animal diets. Studies often do not analyze tryptophan, which limits the understanding of the nutritional potential of insects. Although many species, such as Tenebrio molitor and Locusta migratoria, have demonstrated an excellent amino acid profile, the lack of information on tryptophan could be reflected in an incomplete or less favorable perception of these protein sources. Future studies should address this deficiency as a priority to provide a more complete and accurate picture [48].
Plants represent a variable protein source, with some species approaching the protein profiles of animal sources, while others stand out for the abundance of specific amino acids or the richness in other complementary nutrients. Among the plants approved as novel foods is Wolffia globosa, also known as water lentil. This plant stands out as a plant source of high-quality protein, in fact, in terms of essential amino acids, it has high concentrations of leucine (25.60–78.00 mg/g of protein), lysine (11.80–56.00 mg/g of protein), methionine (1.80–16 mg/g of protein), and phenylalanine (33.90–47.00 mg/g of protein) [25,67,68]. Another plant is Chenopodium pallidicaule (cañahua or cañihua), a plant of the Amaranthaceae family, has an amino acid profile like quinoa, with a good combination of nutrients, but it needs to be paired with other foods to complete the amino acid profile [68,69]. The leucine content (1.26–2.47 mg/g of protein) is significantly lower than Wolffia and animal sources, but like many cereals and pseudocereals. Also, regarding the lysine content (1.05–2.15 mg/g of protein) and methionine (0.86–1.0 mg/g of protein), it reflects a common deficiency in cereals [32]. Baobab, especially the pulp, stands out from other plants considered novel food for a balanced amino acid content and an interesting supply of micronutrients. The pulp of the baobab fruit has high concentrations of leucine (43–54 md/g of protein) and lysine (17–40 mg/g of protein), higher than many plant sources, and therefore of significant interest for integration into protein diets. Also, the content of phenylalanine (35–44 mg/g of protein) is competitive with other plant sources [31,32].
Moringa oleifera is one of the most complete plants in terms of essential amino acids and represents an excellent source of protein for sustainable diets, especially in developing countries. Regarding the content of essential amino acids, Moringa oleifera presents high values in leucine (19.6–77.00 mg/g of protein) like animal sources, lysine (16.40–59.00 mg/g of protein), phenyalanine (15–27.67 mg/g of protein), and methionine (2.9–15 mg/g of protein), which although lower than animal sources is competitive in value among plant varieties [29,30,70].

5. Essential Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fats that our body cannot synthesize on its own and must be introduced through food. The main EFAs are linoleic acid (an omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3), both of which are essential for the proper functioning of the body. These nutrients play a crucial role in the formation of cell membranes, in the regulation of inflammation, and in the production of eicosanoids, molecules that influence functions such as blood pressure, coagulation, and immune responses [15]. In addition, omega-3s, especially EPA and DHA (derived from alpha-linolenic acid), are essential for brain and eye health and for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Essential fatty acids are found in foods such as seeds, nuts, flaxseed oil, oily fish, salmon, and sunflower seed oil [73,74]. A balanced diet rich in these nutrients is essential to support general well-being and prevent deficiencies that can cause problems such as dry skin, cognitive impairment, and chronic inflammation [75]

Novel Foods as a Source of Essential Fatty Acids

The ratio between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids has been demonstrated to play a pivotal role in the maintenance of optimal health. These essential nutrients maintain cardiovascular health, support nervous system function, and regulate inflammation. However, contemporary diets frequently exhibit an imbalance, characterized by a predominance of omega-6 relative to omega-3. This imbalance has the potential to stimulate inflammatory processes and thereby compromise the protective benefits typically associated with omega-3 consumption [76]. Of note is the emphasis on the consumption of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, such as EPA and DHA, which play critical roles in brain function, cardiovascular health, and supporting overall cellular health. Achieving a balanced intake of these fatty acids, preferably through a diet that includes sources rich in EPA and DHA, can help mitigate the risk of chronic diseases and foster better long-term health outcomes [75,76]. In this context, algae, insects, fungi, and some plants emerge as new sources of essential fatty acids, potentially able to improve the nutritional quality of diets and respond to the growing demand for food sustainability [75]. Table 3 shows the content (mg/100 g of product) of essential and non-essential fatty acids of novel foods.
Table 3. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acid amount (g/100 g of product) of novel food as traditional foods from non-EU countries.
Table 3. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acid amount (g/100 g of product) of novel food as traditional foods from non-EU countries.
ALGAE
Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA)Unsaturated Fatty Acid (UFA)Ref.
NameCaprinicCaprilicLauricMiristicPamiticStearicArachidicPalmitoleicOleicLinoleicα-Linolenicγ-LinolenicEicosatetraenoicEPADHA
C6:0C8:0C12:0C14:0C16:0c18:0C20:0C16:1C18:1 cis9C18:2 cis9,12C18:3 cis9,12,15C18:3 cis6,9,12C20:4 cis 5,8,11,14C20:5 (w3)C22:6 (w3)
Spirulina platensisnananana37.095.56.24 5.543.334.2824.4513.96nana[12]
0.167.730.680.8834.716.87na4.8722.2516.844.41ndndnana[14]
nananand51.541.06nd2.882.6918.51nd19.3nanana[13]
Chlorella Vulgarisnana2.20.419.261.54nd3.813.4716.323.312.031.77nana[7]
nana2.48na29.330.1na3.4315.7610.028.694.11nanana[76]
nana2.420.4423.161.69nd4.1817.817.9312.424.63ndnana[36]
Ulva lactucanana0.141.14148.390.190.6927.438.314.384.380.34nana[37]
nana4.432.7645.165.414.572.3713.594.695.82ndndnana[58]
nana 1.8652.935.288.88nd25.081.142.62ndndnana[38]
Porphyra spp.nana0.022.6830.80.660.212.247.163.860.315.668nana[39]
Laminaria spp.nanana4.5190.9na7.411.32.95.7na9.3nana[41]
nanana9.126.91.05na0.922.157.25na5.657.3nana[42]
Alaria esculentananana8.926.91.7na1.523.98.2na5.14.6nana[42]
nananana15.68nanana11.17nanana11.0210.10.75[43]
Gelidium spp.na1.7922.6112.3946.711.580.431.454.450.490.18nananana[44]
nanana6.252.041.8na1.216.940.73nanana14.17na[43]
FUNGI
Pleurotus ostreatusnananana2.990.71nana3.210.060.07nananana[18]
nana0.230.4615.053.280.260.6513.1161.530.540.54nanana[77]
0.2631.1530.0230.0430.05960.0466nana0.05665.590.390.050.183nd0.0402[78]
Lentinula edodensnananana9.823.47na2.1511.4323.94nanananana[79]
nananana0.580.16na14.750.221.440.83nananana[61]
Grifola Frondosanananand16.852.34nd0.544.135.1nd0.55ndnana[19]
Ganoderma lucidumnananand20.13.710.329.342.42.2ndnanana[19]
nananana15.38.9nana17.316.10.16na1.3nana[79]
Agaricus brasiliensisnanana0.2613.656.21.1nd0.5665.861.10.36nanana[19]
nananana78.310nana14.133.70.52na6.4nana[79]
nananand12.43.1nana1.775.21.1nananana[73]
INSECTS
Tenebrio molitornanana0.391.470.26na0.273.633.190.14nananana[21]
nananana4.160.56nana10.297.510.27nana0.010.02[72]
nana3.14na18.714.8na1.9333.8518.56nd0.562.532.651.28[71]
nanana3.2617.213.06nana44.3631.631.46na0.5nana[71]
nandndnd18.625.33nand35.6328.231.18nandnana[48]
locusta migratorianandndnd28.448.27ndnd31.616.9610.47nandnd [48]
nana0.151.423.59.370.260.7835.7917.310.210.050.17nana[23]
nanana2.6927.37.23na1.17na8.9415.64nananana[33]
nana0.111.929.527.330.561.1338nd11.690.11ndndna[72]
acheta domesticusnana0.02–0.030.04–0.111.56–5.870.58–1.83na0.09–0.151.54–3.900.06–1.17nanana0.06na[24]
nana0.02–0.100.04–1.551.56–23.690.58–8.540.04–0.1250.09–0.343.90–20.181.17–41.390.011–1.140.070.010.01–0.057na[74]
Alphitobius diaperinusnandndnd24.298.7ndnd37.1622.57ndnandndnd[48]
nananana27.218.55nana34.1224.84nanananana[50]
PLANT
Wolffia globosananana0.3928.72.20.55na2.652537.10.53nanana[67]
nana0.220.3824.542.430.285.524.3226.0833.36nananana[25]
Kanihua (seed)nananana11.80.970.46na24.1953.48nanananana[26]
nana1.31.522.80.60.90.929.839.21.2nananana[53]
Baobabnandnd0.213.63.30.7nd2513.5na0.5nanana[31]
nanana0.224.24.61.3na35.830.71nananana[32]
Moringa oleiferanana0.583.6611.792.131.610.173.967.4444.570.2nanana[30]
na: not analyzed; nd: not detectable.
Seaweed is emerging as one of the most promising alternative sources of essential fatty acids due to its versatility and unique nutrient profile. These marine and freshwater organisms offer a particularly interesting lipid profile, which varies greatly between different species and includes both omega-3 and omega-6, nutrients essential for the correct functioning of the body. The lipid profile of algae varies according to the species, location, and cultivation techniques. Among algae, Spirulina platensis contains high concentrations of linoleic acid (6.87 g/100 g of product) and a discrete content of alpha-linolenic acid (4.87 g/100 g of product) [13,71,72]. However, the concentration of EPA and DHA, bioactive forms of omega-3 typical of marine sources, is absent or not detected in most studies. This from a lipid profile makes it more like oil seeds (rich in alpha-linolenic acid with concentrations that can exceed 50% of the total lipid content) than fish which has high concentrations of EPA and DHA (omega-3) with values that can reach 2–3 g per 100 g of product [17]. As for Chlorella vulgaris, it is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids with linoleic acid (LA) values equal to 17.8 g/100 g of product and alpha-linolenic acid with values equal to 12.42 g/100 g of product [56,74,75]. This type of algae stands out for the best balance between omega-3 and omega-6 compared to other algae. While Ulva lactuca has high levels of AL (8.39 g/100 g of product) and moderate quantities of ALA (4.38 g/100 g of product) [38,58]. Compared to Chlorella spp., it shows a lower omega-3 content but remains a good source of essential fatty acids [36]. Furthermore, the algae analyzed have trace or absent concentrations of EPA and DHA and therefore do not reach the contents of these omega-3s of fish, especially blue fish. However, algae offer a useful plant-based alternative for those who follow a vegetarian or vegan diet [15].
Mushrooms have lower concentrations of essential fatty acids than algae, mainly due to their low total lipid content. However, they can be an interesting source of some unsaturated fatty acids. Mushrooms mainly contain linoleic acid, which is the main essential fatty acid present in these foods. Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) has a linoleic content that varies from about 10.06 g to 100 g up to over 65% of total fatty acids. While Lentinula edodes (shiitake) has an average content of 11.43 g/100 g [18,77,78]. This makes mushrooms a good source of omega-6 even if their content is lower than oilseeds such as sunflower. The presence of omega-3 in mushrooms is minimal. In some species such as Pleurotus ostreatus, alpha-linolenic acid is present in trace amounts (e.g., 0.07 g/100 g) resulting in nutritional insignificance. It is important to note that the elevated omega-6/omega-3 ratio in mushrooms is indicative of a marked imbalance, with omega-6 predominating. This is a prevalent feature of contemporary diets and may curtail their beneficial impact on the overall fatty acid balance [78]. This is a common aspect of modern diets and may limit the positive contribution of mushrooms to the overall balance of fatty acids in the diet. Furthermore, the content of essential fatty acids varies greatly between species; for example, Ganoderma lucidum has a much higher concentration of AL (17.3–29.3 g/100 g of product) than Pleurotus (3.2–13.11 g/100 g of product) or Lentinula (0.22–11.43 g/100 g of product) but is still deficient in omega-3. Instead, Grifola frondosa is distinguished by a composition richer in total fatty acids, but the concentration of essential fatty acids remains low [18,19]. Mushrooms, while offering a fair amount of linoleic acid, are not a primary source of essential fatty acids, especially omega-3. They can be integrated into a varied diet for their overall nutritional value, but to ensure an adequate intake of essential fatty acids, it is preferable to combine them with other sources, such as fish algae or oilseeds [78].
Insects, an emerging food source, can contribute significantly to the lipid intake of the diet although the fatty acid content varies considerably between species and farming methods. Insects are a good source of omega-6 fatty acids, especially AL. Among the insects permitted by the regulations, Tenebrio molitor (10.29–44.36 g/100 g of product) and Locusta migratoria (16.96–28.23 g/100 g of product) have high concentrations of AL, which makes insects among the richest sources of omega-6, similar or higher than some oilseeds such as sunflower [22,71,72]. The ALA content in Tenebrio molitor is 1.28–2.65 g/100 g of product and in Locusta migratoria is 1.18–10.47 g/100 g of product [33,48]. In contrast, Acheta domesticus has a variable lipid composition with AL between 3.90 and 20.18 g/100 g of product and ALA between 1.17 and 11.39 g/100 g of product, demonstrating significant potential as a source of essential fatty acids [79]. While Alphitobius diaperinus has a remarkable linoleic acid content (22.57 g/100 g product), its omega-3 profile remains limited, limiting its potential as a complete source of essential fatty acids. Although insects are generally a promising source—due to their high total fatty acid content, and in some species, appreciable levels of ALA—trace amounts or lack of data on EPA and DHA limit their utility [48,49,50]. On the other hand, data on the essential fatty acids present in plants indicate great potential for these food sources to provide both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. For example, among the new plants authorized on the European market, Wolffia globosa (duckweed) contains a significant amount of linoleic acid (25 g/100 g of product). which represents a significant part of its lipid content [25,67]. Canihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) has an even higher linoleic acid content, around 42.6% of total fatty acids, making it competitive with traditional oilseeds in the supply of omega-6, which is essential for the regulation of biological processes such as inflammation [26]. In terms of omega-3, Wolffia globosa has a high ALA content (37.1 g/100 g of product) compared to Canihua, which provides 6% of total fatty acids as ALA [25]. Overall, these plants not only offer a balanced ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids but also present a promising alternative to traditional sources such as flaxseed or chia seed, especially for consumers seeking plant-based options in a vegetarian diet [32,67].

6. Discussion

This literature review demonstrates that novel foods constitute a valuable source of essential amino acids (EAAs) and essential fatty acids (EFAs), thereby making a significant contribution to global food security and sustainability. Nevertheless, several critical issues must be addressed before their widespread adoption. A significant concern pertains to the bioavailability of these nutrients in comparison to conventional sources. Although microalgae, fungi, insects, and plants, such as Wolffia globosa, offer complete amino acid profiles, with leucine and lysine levels comparable to animal proteins [13,22], further research is needed to assess their actual assimilation in the human body. The presence of anti-nutritional factors, such as chitin in insects and polysaccharides in algae, has the potential to interfere with the processes of protein digestion and absorption [26]. The current body of research, predominantly based on in vitro models or limited populations, highlights the necessity for more comprehensive clinical trials to evaluate the long-term health implications [6]. Consumer acceptance remains a significant challenge, particularly in Western markets where cultural barriers are a notable factor. Innovative solutions, such as the incorporation of insect or microalgae proteins into fortified food formulations without compromising taste or texture [33], hold potential to facilitate their integration into established dietary patterns including the Mediterranean diet. Environmental concerns also persist. Even though insect farming and algae cultivation require fewer resources than traditional livestock farming [9,10], concerns remain about energy use and industrial processing. Further life-cycle cost analyses are required to ascertain the long-term sustainability of these novel foods. In summary, innovative foods offer a promising strategy to improve the intake of essential amino acids (EAAs) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in modern diets, but further studies are essential to evaluate their bioavailability, safety, consumer acceptance, and environmental impact [79]. A comprehensive multifaceted approach incorporating rigorous clinical trials and thorough sustainability assessments is imperative for formulating effective guidelines for their incorporation into daily diets. Figure 1 presents a SWOT analysis that outlines the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with integrating novel foods into contemporary dietary patterns.

7. Conclusions

In its ongoing evolution to address critical global challenges. the Mediterranean diet explores the integration of innovative foods such as algae, insects, fungi, and non-traditional plants. Microalgae such as spirulina and chlorella have been shown to provide high-quality proteins that are comparable to animal sources, while insects like Tenebrio molitor and Locusta migratoria have been found to offer essential amino acids like methionine, which are often lacking in plant-based diets. Seaweeds have been found to contribute omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which complement traditional sources like oily fish and olive oil, while plants like Wolffia globosa and Moringa oleifera provide essential fatty acids, antioxidants, and micronutrients. Beyond their nutritional benefits, these novel foods have a lower environmental impact requiring fewer resources like land and water. Rather than replacing traditional elements, we could consider incorporating these foods to enhance the Mediterranean diet’s adaptability, making it a more sustainable and resilient model for future generations.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: G.V. and L.G.; methodology. G.V. and L.M. (Lucia Maddaloni); resources: L.M. (Luca Muzzioli) and L.M. (Lucia Maddaloni); data curation: L.M. (Lucia Maddaloni); writing—original draft preparation: L.M. (Lucia Maddaloni) and L.M. (Luca Muzzioli); writing—review and editing: G.V. and L.M.D.; supervision: G.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by grant PE00000003 (decree 1550. 11 October 2022) (ON Foods—Research and innovation network on food and nutrition sustainability. Safety and security—Working ON Foods) from the Italian Ministry of University and Research (CUP D93C22000890001) under the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR) funded by the European UnionNextGenerationEU.

Data Availability Statement

This study did not create or analyze new data and data sharing does not apply to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Dietetics 04 00014 g001
Figure 1. SWOT analysis of novel foods.
Figure 1. SWOT analysis of novel foods.
Dietetics 04 00014 g001
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MDPI and ACS Style

Maddaloni, L.; Donini, L.M.; Gobbi, L.; Muzzioli, L.; Vinci, G. Essential Amino Acids and Fatty Acids in Novel Foods: Emerging Nutritional Sources and Implications. Dietetics 2025, 4, 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4020014

AMA Style

Maddaloni L, Donini LM, Gobbi L, Muzzioli L, Vinci G. Essential Amino Acids and Fatty Acids in Novel Foods: Emerging Nutritional Sources and Implications. Dietetics. 2025; 4(2):14. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4020014

Chicago/Turabian Style

Maddaloni, Lucia, Lorenzo Maria Donini, Laura Gobbi, Luca Muzzioli, and Giuliana Vinci. 2025. "Essential Amino Acids and Fatty Acids in Novel Foods: Emerging Nutritional Sources and Implications" Dietetics 4, no. 2: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4020014

APA Style

Maddaloni, L., Donini, L. M., Gobbi, L., Muzzioli, L., & Vinci, G. (2025). Essential Amino Acids and Fatty Acids in Novel Foods: Emerging Nutritional Sources and Implications. Dietetics, 4(2), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4020014

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