Non-Road Mobile Machinery Emissions and Regulations: A Review
Abstract
:Highlights
- Non-Road Mobile Machinery are used in many sectors for various off-road activities.
- NRMM have the potential to overtake on-road vehicles as the biggest mobile polluter.
- Lack of available data can cause inaccuracy in estimated emissions and inventories.
- Emission inventories are needed to fully understand NRMM emissions.
- EU regulations benefit the environment and businesses and avoid unfair competition.
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Pollutants Emitted by NRMM Operation
3. NRMM Emission Studies
3.1. NRMM Emissions in Agriculture
3.2. NRMM Emissions in Construction
3.3. Other NRMM Emissions
4. International Government Regulations for NRMM
4.1. European Union
4.2. United States of America
- -
- Aircraft
- Regulations are separated by emission type:
- Nitrogen oxide emissions.
- Greenhouse gas emissions.
- Lead emissions.
- -
- Heavy equipment
- Regulations are separated by engine type used in machines:
- Spark ignition engines over 19 kW (25 horsepower):
- Forklifts; generators; other farm, industrial and construction applications.
- May operate on propane, gasoline or natural gas.
- Compression ignition (diesel) engines:
- Excavators and other construction equipment, farm tractors and other agricultural equipment, forklifts, airport ground service equipment and utility equipment such as generators, pumps and compressors.
- The EPA has adopted multiple tiers of emission standards.
- -
- Locomotives
- Three-part program to dramatically reduce emissions from all types of diesel locomotives finalised in 2008. When fully implemented it will:
- Cut particulate matter (PM) emissions by up to 90%.
- Cut nitrogen oxides (NOx) by up to 80%.
- -
- Marine
- Regulations are separated by engine type used in marine vessels:
- Spark ignition engines.
- Compression ignition (diesel) engines.
- -
- Recreational vehicles
- Snowmobiles, off-highway motorcycles (dirt bikes, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs)) and personal boats and watercraft.
- -
- Small equipment and tools
- Usually small spark ignition engines.
- Evaporative emission standards address fuel permeation through fuel system components in addition to fuel venting during engine operation.
- -
- Tier 1 standards were phased in 1996–2000;
- -
- Tier 2 was phased in 2001–2006;
- -
- Tier 3 in 2006–2008; and
- -
- Tier 4 in 2008–2015.
4.3. United Kingdom
- -
- Aircraft.
- -
- Certain specialist applications—military and recreational craft, road vehicles and ships for intended use at sea.
- -
- Agricultural and tractor engines (these are excluded from NRMM regulations as they are covered by separate regulations).
4.4. Japan
- Special motor vehicles, i.e., self-propelled non-road vehicles and machinery that are registered for operation on public roads (fitted with license plates).
- Non-road motor vehicles, i.e., self-propelled and non-registered non-road vehicles and machinery.
- -
- On 28 June 2005, the MOE announced a new set of standards for special vehicles based on the 2003 report of the Central Environment Council (CEC), and on 28 March 2006, these standards came into force for nonroad vehicles too. The emission limits here were based on the U.S. EPA Tier 3 standards effective from 2006 to 2008.
- -
- In 2008, the CED recommended further tightening of nonroad emission regulations:
- In March 2010, regulations based on U.S. Tier 4i/EU Stage IIIB standards were introduced. They became effective from 2011 to 2013.
- New regulations based on U.S. Tier 4/EU Stage IIIB standards became effective from 2015 to 2016.
4.5. China
- -
- 2007: First emission standards for mobile nonroad diesel engines were adopted.
- Based on European Stage I/II standards.
- Additionally covered small diesel engines (not subject to European standards).
- -
- 2010: Emission standards for mobile nonroad spark ignition engines <19 kW were published in December. The limits were based on EU and U.S. standards.
- Stage I requirements became effective in March.
- Stage II had different implementation dates for non-handheld vs. handheld engines:
- Start dates for new engine types were January 2013/January 2015, respectively.
- Start dates for all new engines were January 2014/January 2016, respectively.
- -
- 2014: China Stage III emission standards and proposed limits for Stage IV were published.
- Based on European Stage IIIA and IIIB requirements, respectively.
- -
- 2018: A procedure for measuring smoke emissions from non-road equipment and vehicles came into effect in December.
- -
- 2020: Stage IV implementation was postponed form January until December [76].
4.6. South Korea
- -
- The first non-road emission standards came into effect in 2004/2005. These were based on U.S. Tier 1/Tier 2 standards, respectively. They applied to engines of between 19 kW and 560 kW rated power in machinery such as excavators, bulldozers, loader, cranes, graders, rollers and forklift trucks.
- -
- In 2009, emission standards based on U.S. Tier 3 requirements came into effect for construction machinery, and in 2013 for agricultural equipment.
- -
- In 2015, Tier 4-based standards came into effect.
5. Emission Inventories
- -
- Bottom-up emissions (based on specific activity data and emission factors);
- -
- Top-down emissions (based on aggregated data); and
- -
- Measurement of data (usually only available for large point sources).
EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Inventory Guidebook
- (I)
- The first edition of this guidebook was published in 1996 as the EMEP/CORINAIR Atmospheric Emission Inventory guidebook [95].
- -
- Combustion (including power plants, but excluding other industry);
- -
- Oil refineries;
- -
- Industrial combustion;
- -
- Processes;
- -
- Solvent evaporation;
- -
- Road transportation;
- -
- Nature; and
- -
- Miscellaneous.
- -
- Public power, cogeneration and district heating plants;
- -
- Commercial, institutional and residential combustion plants;
- -
- Industrial combustion;
- -
- Production processes;
- -
- Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels;
- -
- Solvent use;
- -
- Road transport;
- -
- Other mobile sources and machinery;
- -
- Waste treatment and disposal;
- -
- Agriculture; and
- -
- Nature.
- -
- Military (engines for use by the armed forces are exempt as per Article 34.2 in EU 2016/1628);
- -
- Railways;
- -
- Inland waterways;
- -
- Agriculture;
- -
- Forestry;
- -
- Industry; and
- -
- Household and gardening.
- (II)
- 1999 Edition
- (III)
- 2001 Edition
- (IV)
- 2002 Update
- (V)
- 2006 Edition
- (VI)
- 2007 Edition
- (VII)
- 2009 Edition
- (VIII)
- 2013 Edition
- (IX)
- 2016 Edition
- (X)
- 2019 Edition
6. Emission Trends for the Main Air Pollutants between 1990 and 2019
- -
- Moving away from solid and liquid fuels with high sulphur content in energy-related sectors towards low-sulphur fuels such as natural gas;
- -
- Using flue gas desulphurisation techniques in industrial facilities; and
- -
- Implementing EU directives relating to the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Agriculture and Forestry | Construction | Railway | Inland Waterway | Mines and Quarrying | Gardening and Handheld Equipment | Misc. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Harvesters Cultivators Tractors ATVs | Excavators Loaders Bulldozers Forklifts Cranes | Locomotives Railcars | Inland waterway vessels | Underground trucks Mining loaders Excavators | Lawnmowers Chain saws Hedge trimmers | Generators Side by side vehicles |
Particulate Matter, which is one of the most serious air pollution health risks in the EU, is divided into the following subcategories: TSP: Total suspended particles, which in practical terms covers all PM suspended in air, and they are measured by high-volume samplers applying standard measurement procedures PM10: Inhalable particles with diameters that are 10 μm or smaller PM2.5: Fine inhalable particles that are 2.5 μm or smaller UF: Ultrafine particles that are 0.1 μm or smaller BC: Black carbon, or soot, is a constituent of PM2.5 formed from incomplete fuel combustion |
Nitrogen Oxides, which are a health hazard for humans. They also cause eutrophication and acidification in waterbodies, and contribute to the formation of PM10, PM2.5 and ozone. |
Carbon Monoxide, which is dangerous to human health and can be fatal. It is produced by the burning of any fuel caused by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and mostly oxidises to CO2 in the atmosphere. |
Carbon Dioxide, which is a heat-trapping greenhouse gas. It is released through burning of fossil fuels, among other human activities, as well as through natural processes such as respiration. |
Hydrocarbons, which are dangerous to human health, especially to the health of the lungs. They react with nitrogen oxides in sunlight to produce photochemical smog. Both reactivity and quantity of hydrocarbon emissions must be measured in the assessment of the effect of emission of photochemical smog. |
Sulphur Oxides, which are harmful for the respiratory system. They are produced by burning fossil fuels containing sulphur, but natural sources also exist, such as volcanoes. They can create secondary pollutants such as sulphate aerosols, PM and acid rain when released into the air. |
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Hagan, R.; Markey, E.; Clancy, J.; Keating, M.; Donnelly, A.; O’Connor, D.J.; Morrison, L.; McGillicuddy, E.J. Non-Road Mobile Machinery Emissions and Regulations: A Review. Air 2023, 1, 14-36. https://doi.org/10.3390/air1010002
Hagan R, Markey E, Clancy J, Keating M, Donnelly A, O’Connor DJ, Morrison L, McGillicuddy EJ. Non-Road Mobile Machinery Emissions and Regulations: A Review. Air. 2023; 1(1):14-36. https://doi.org/10.3390/air1010002
Chicago/Turabian StyleHagan, Rita, Emma Markey, Jerry Clancy, Mark Keating, Aoife Donnelly, David J. O’Connor, Liam Morrison, and Eoin J. McGillicuddy. 2023. "Non-Road Mobile Machinery Emissions and Regulations: A Review" Air 1, no. 1: 14-36. https://doi.org/10.3390/air1010002