Blockchain for Electronic Voting System—Review and Open Research Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. Core Components of Blockchain Architecture
- Node: Users or computers in blockchain layout (every device has a different copy of a complete ledger from the blockchain);
- Transaction: It is the blockchain system’s smallest building block (records and details), which blockchain uses;
- Block: A block is a collection of data structures used to process transactions over the network distributed to all nodes.
- Chain: A series of blocks in a particular order;
- Miners: Correspondent nodes to validate the transaction and add that block into the blockchain system;
- Consensus: A collection of commands and organizations to carry out blockchain processes.
2.2. Critical Characteristics of Blockchain Architecture
- Cryptography: Blockchain transactions are authenticated and accurate because of computations and cryptographic evidence between the parties involved;
- Immutability: Any blockchain documents cannot be changed or deleted;
- Provenance: It refers to the fact that every transaction can be tracked in the blockchain ledger;
- Decentralization: The entire distributed database may be accessible by all members of the blockchain network. A consensus algorithm allows control of the system, as shown in the core process;
- Anonymity: A blockchain network participant has generated an address rather than a user identification. It maintains anonymity, especially in a blockchain public system;
- Transparency: It means being unable to manipulate the blockchain network. It does not happen as it takes immense computational resources to erase the blockchain network.
3. How Blockchain Can Transform the Electronic Voting System
4. Problems and Solutions of Developing Online Voting Systems
- Eligibility: Only legitimate voters should be able to take part in voting;
- Unreusability: Each voter can vote only once;
- Privacy: No one except the voter can obtain information about the voter’s choice;
- Fairness: No one can obtain intermediate voting results;
- Soundness: Invalid ballots should be detected and not taken into account during tallying;
- Completeness: All valid ballots should be tallied correctly.
4.1. Eligibility
4.2. Unreusability
4.3. Privacy
4.4. Fairness
4.5. Soundness and Completeness
5. Security Requirements for Voting System
5.1. Anonymity
5.2. Auditability and Accuracy
5.3. Democracy/Singularity
5.4. Vote Privacy
5.5. Robustness and Integrity
5.6. Lack of Evidence
5.7. Transparency and Fairness
5.8. Availability and Mobility
5.9. Verifiable Participation/Authenticity
5.10. Accessibility and Reassurance
5.11. Recoverability and Identification
5.12. Voters Verifiability
6. Electronic Voting on Blockchain
7. Current Blockchain-Based Electronic Voting Systems
7.1. Follow My Vote
7.2. Voatz
7.3. Polyas
7.4. Luxoft
7.5. Polys
7.6. Agora
8. Related Literature Review
9. Discussion and Future Work
9.1. Scalability and Processing Overheads
9.2. User Identity
9.3. Transactional Privacy
9.4. Energy Efficiency
9.5. Immatureness
9.6. Acceptableness
9.7. Political Leaders’ Resistance
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Online Voting Platforms | Framework | Language | Cryptographic Algorithm | Consensus Protocol | Main Features (Online Blockchain Voting System) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Audit | Anonymity | Verifiability by Voter | Integrity | Accessibility | Scalability | Accuracy/Correctness | Affordability | |||||
Follow My Vote | Bitcoin | C++/Python | ECC | PoW | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Voatz | Hyperledger Fabric | Go/JavaScript | AES/GCM | PBFT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Polyas | Private/local Blockchains | NP | ECC | PET | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | NA |
Luxoft | Hyperledger Fabric | Go/JavaScript | ECC/ElGamal | PBFT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Polys | Ethereum | Solidity | Shamir’s Secret Sharing | PoW | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Agora | Bitcoin | Python | ElGamal | BFT-r | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Framework | Year Release | Generation Time | Hash Rate | Transactions Per Sec | Cryptographic Algorithm | Mining Difficulty | Power Consumption | Reward/Block | Scalability |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bitcoin | 2008 | 9.7 min | 899.624 Th/s | 4.6 max 7 | ECDSA | High (around 165,496,835,118) | Very High | 25 BTC | Very Low |
Ethereum | 2015 | 10 to 19 s | 168.59 Th/s | 15 | ECDSA | High (around 10,382,102) | High | 5 ether | Low |
Hyperledger Fabric | 2015 | 10 ms | NA | 3500 | ECC | No mining required | Very Low | No built-in cryptocurrency | Good |
Litecoin | 2011 | 2.5 min | 1.307 Th/s | 56 | Scrypt | Low 55,067 | Moderate | 25 LTC | Moderate |
Ripple | 2012 | 3.5 s | NA | 1500 | RPCA | No mining required | Very Low | Base Fee | Good |
Dogecoin | 2013 | 1 min | 1.4 Th/s | 33 | Scrypt | Low 21,462 | Low | 10,000 Doge | Low |
Peercoin | 2012 | 10 min | 693.098 Th/s | 8 | Hybrid | Moderate (476,560,083) | Low | 67.12 PPC | Low |
Authors | Voting Scheme | BC Type | Consensus Algorithm | Framework | Cryptographic Algorithm | Hashing Algorithm | Counting Method | Security Requirements (Measuring on a Large Scale) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anonymity | Audit | Accuracy/Correctness | Accessibility | Integrity | Scalability | Affordability | Verifiability by Voter | ||||||||
Shahzad and Crowcroft [2] | BSJC | Private | PoW | Bitcoin | Not specified | SHA-256 | 3rd Party | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ |
Gao, Zheng [8] | Anti-Quantum | Public | PBFT | Bitcoin | Certificateless Traceable Ring Signature, Code-Based, ECC | Double SHA-256 | Self-tally | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ |
McCorry, Shahandashti [76] | OVN | Public | 2 Round-zero Knowledge Proof | Ethereum | ECC | Not specified | Self-tally | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Lai, Hsieh [81] | DATE | Public | PoW | Ethereum | Ring Signature, ECC, Diffie-Hellman | SHA-3 | Self-tally | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Yi [83] | BES | Public | PoW | Bitcoin | ECC | SHA-256 | NA | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ |
Khan, K.M. [86] | BEA | Private/Public | PoW | Multichain | Not specified | Not specified | NA | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ |
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Jafar, U.; Aziz, M.J.A.; Shukur, Z. Blockchain for Electronic Voting System—Review and Open Research Challenges. Sensors 2021, 21, 5874. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21175874
Jafar U, Aziz MJA, Shukur Z. Blockchain for Electronic Voting System—Review and Open Research Challenges. Sensors. 2021; 21(17):5874. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21175874
Chicago/Turabian StyleJafar, Uzma, Mohd Juzaiddin Ab Aziz, and Zarina Shukur. 2021. "Blockchain for Electronic Voting System—Review and Open Research Challenges" Sensors 21, no. 17: 5874. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21175874