**1. Introduction**

Reading comprehension, in any language, is the cognitive process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written texts [1–3]. Reading comprehension is often viewed as a binary capability involving literal and inferential comprehension outcomes. While literal comprehension is related to readers retrieving explicit information directly from a text [4,5], inferential comprehension involves the readers' consideration of content beyond the text and requires readers to integrate their perspectives with that of the text author. As such, inferential comprehension is theorized to be the result of analyzing and synthesizing knowledge from different sources [5–7].

Beyond the two levels of comprehension, reading comprehension is a complex process that is affected by a variety of cognitive factors, such as reading fluency, purposes for reading, usage of comprehension strategies, vocabulary knowledge, and background knowledge. Additional contributors to comprehension include readers' knowledge of printed language structure and language conventions through which information is conveyed [1,8–11].

Fluency is the ability to read text accurately, automatically (at the speed of oral language), and with prosody. Fluency has been described as the bridge between word recognition and comprehension in that fluency, or automatic reading, frees up cognitive resources from word decoding to processing meaning [12] Readers who attain automaticity in decoding, have sufficient prior knowledge, and are proficient in other contributing processes of comprehension are able to make meaning from the text with relative ease [13]. Scientific studies have demonstrated consistent and positive relationships between reading fluency and comprehension [14–19].

The awareness of the importance of prior knowledge for reading comprehension is critical. Before synthesizing and analyzing new information, previous experiences or background knowledge need to be connected to and integrated with the new information in a text. In every new meeting with the text, the reader brings her/his total previous experiences to make meaning from the text [20]. Research has shown that comprehension is enhanced when readers activate and use prior knowledge to make connections with the text when reading [21,22].

Skilled readers also employ a variety of comprehension strategies and competencies to comprehend text [23]. Reading comprehension-related strategiesinclude activating background knowledge, summarizing, identifying main idea, awareness of text structure, predicting, and self-questioning [24]. These reading competencies support the reader in gaining and constructing meaning from text [8]. Previous research in reading English has focused on the competencies and strategies employed by proficient readers when reading. Mariotti, for example, [10] articulates that strong vocabulary, use of strategies, reading fluency, and prior knowledge are underlying factors of proficient reading comprehension. When readers activate their prior knowledge and make connections to prior knowledge, and with the use strategies, they can comprehend better what they read [25,26].

The role and importance of comprehension-related strategies in Turkish, and with the students manifesting reading difficulties, however, are less well understood [27–32].

Previous research in Turkey has explored the relationship between prior knowledge and other comprehension strategies and competencies. Akyel and Ercetin [33] investigated the relationship between the sufficiency of prior knowledge and use of comprehension strategies such as questioning, creating mental images, summarizing, and making predictions. Greater prior knowledge resulted in more use of comprehension strategies. Other research has shown a strong relationship between vocabulary and reading fluency [34]. Additionally, Beydogan [35] noted positive and significant relationships between strategy use and reading fluency. In another study, Ates and Yildirim [34] investigated the extent to which practices related to reading instruction and strategy are used in classroom settings. The findings revealed that elementary classroom teachers do not employ strategies to improve students' reading comprehension and do not teach strategies to students explicitly.

In this study we attempted to expand our understanding of the relationship between the various comprehension factors and reading comprehension for Turkish elementary students. It focused on the relationships and interactions between background knowledge (K), reading fluency (both automaticity (A) in word recognition and prosody (P)), comprehension strategy (S) employment, and reading comprehension. We hypothesize that these various factors together contribute to students' reading comprehension in a theoretical model we termed KAPS.

In the current study, we attempted to test the KAPS model in a Turkish language context. There were two main research questions, as follows:


## **2. Methods**

#### *2.1. Research Design*

This research is a correlational study where we sought to understand what kind of relations reading fluency, background knowledge, and strategy use have with reading comprehension. Through this design, we aimed to clarify the hypothesized the KAPS model of reading comprehension in a Turkish. Therefore, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed for the analysis. The reason why we used SEM is that structural equation modeling, which is a statistical technique, is used to measure underlying hypothetical constructs and their interrelationships.
