**8. Conclusions**

To conclude, Kata Kolok is uniquely placed in the typological landscape of sign language negation, as it can neither be classified as a manual dominant system nor as a non-manual dominant system. Adopting a grammaticalization theory approach, we furthermore sugges<sup>t</sup> multiple trajectories regarding how this distinct pattern may have arisen from its gestural precursors. It is hoped that future comparisons to home sign languages in the broader area of Bali will allow us to evaluate these possible grammaticalization scenarios. The study of the relationship between standard negation and other negative forms, e.g., negative interjections, imperatives, existentials, incompletives, and completives, entails a promising contribution to the study of diachronic language change. While the hands are often the focus of studies on sign language grammar (Puupponen 2019), the use of specific non-manual elements is of equal interest; the data provided in this article may indicate a grammaticalization continuum for all negative non-manual markers used in negative contexts. This highlights the need to consider the full repertoire of different signals that signers have at their disposal. At any rate, our study contributes to a better understanding of how grammaticalization may unfold throughout a sign language's lifespan with specific reference to negation. As such, this paper contributes to the contrastive analyses that are needed to pinpoint the factors that shape sign language grammars.

**Supplementary Materials:** Videos of all examples included in this article are available at https: //osf.io/3ncfq/. (DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/3NCFQ); accessed on 19 December 2021.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, H.L., R.P. and C.d.V.; methodology, H.L., R.P. and C.d.V.; formal analysis, H.L., R.P. and C.d.V.; resources, C.d.V.; data curation, H.L.; writing—original draft preparation H.L.; writing—review and editing, H.L., R.P. and C.d.V.; visualization, H.L.; supervision, R.P. and C.d.V.; funding acquisition, C.d.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** FWO-NWO under gran<sup>t</sup> [NWO 326-70-002] "The emergence of phonology within six generations" awarded to Bart de Boer, Paula Fikkert, and Connie de Vos, by NWO under the VENI gran<sup>t</sup> [VENI 275-89-028] "The face in sign language interaction" awarded to Connie de Vos, and by ERC under the ERC Starting Grant [ELISA—852352] "Emergence of Language in Social Interaction".

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Data used for this project was originally collected by de Vos (2012, 2016), and reuse was approved by the Ethics Assessment Committee of the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Studies (EAC) of Radboud University as part of the research project The emergence of phonology in six generations (application #2013, approved 17 March 2017).

**Informed Consent Statement:** Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

**Data Availability Statement:** All data presented in this paper stem from the Kata Kolok Corpus, curated by The Language Archive (TLA) at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands. Metadata are available at https://hdl.handle.net/1839/7ea873da-5ad4-474a-8cc7-7 dfc51bbb552 (accessed on 19 December 2021) and access can be requested through the TLA website.

**Acknowledgments:** We thank all the Kata Kolok signers that have contributed to the Kata Kolok Corpus and have worked with us in documenting and describing the language through the years, in particular Ni Made Dadi Astini, Ni Made Sumarni, and I Ketut Kanta. Moreover, we are indebted to our three reviewers, who provided valuable feedback, which helped us improve the manuscript.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Appendix A. Coding Scheme**

