2.2.6. Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Inflammation is a biological response to noxious stimuli. It is a protective response involving immune cells such as macrophages, blood vessels, molecular mediators such as NO, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-<sup>α</sup>, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)), and prostaglandins [41]. Previous studies have identified anti-inflammatory compounds in macroalgae. Fucosterol derived from the methanolic extract of the brown alga *Eisenia bicyclis* and *Undaria pinnatifida* exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by suppressing the production of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages [14,42]. Fucosterol also inhibited t-BHP-induced ROS production and suppressed iNOS and COX-2 expression. Furthermore, *E. bicyclis* has strong anti-inflammatory properties with the potential to inhibit NO and ROS production, as well as the NF-κB pathway [14]. Fucosterol from *Padina boryana* was reported to have anti-inflammatory properties via the regulation of NF-κB/MAPK and involvement of Nrf2/HO-1 pathways in PM-induced inflammation/oxidative stress in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells [43]. Furthermore, fucosterol extracted from *Sargassum aquifolium* (formerly *Sargassum binderi*) decreased ROS levels in PM-induced HaCaT cells and human lung epithelial cells [15,44]. Another study also showed inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor through the PI3K/Akt pathway in keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells induced by cobalt chloride (CoCl2). Based on the research conducted, fucosterol from brown macroalgae has the potential to be developed further in the pharmacological field.
