*2.3. Michel Foucault's Theory of Power*

In addition to the aforementioned scholars, Michel Foucault has had a major influence on CDA, notably with his work on power, a core concept in CDA. Knowledge is intrinsically related to Foucauldian power. In fact, he uses the term "power/knowledge" to represent this relationship and his thesis that power is constructed by dominant forces of society through knowledge. Conversely, power is necessary for the construction of knowledge and truth [7]. Foucault notes that power is not necessarily coercive and repressive, adding that "if power were nothing but repressive ... do you think one would be brought to obey it?" ([7] p. 119). Instead, according to Foucault, power "traverses and produces things, it induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse" ([7] p. 119). Thus, it frequently functions more surreptitiously than coercive power. It may go undetected and

unchallenged by those upon whom it imposes, and those who wield and profit from it may do so unwittingly. Recognizing the role of power is a crucial initial step in addressing power disparities.

#### *2.4. Ideology*

CDA recognizes that discourse is intrinsically ideological, as it is defined as "social forms and processes within which, and by means of which, symbolic forms circulate in the social world" ([2] p. 10). CDA researchers view ideology as fundamental to the establishment and maintenance of unequal power relations and strive to "demystify discourses by deciphering ideologies" ([2] p. 10) underlying them. Throughout the entirety of the research process, CDA researchers must also explicitly consider their own ideologies. This appears to contradict the objectivity often sought in research, where the scientific and the ideological are considered mutually exclusive. CDA research asserts that all research is ideological; therefore, ignoring the role of ideology in activities such as formulating a research question, collecting data, and analyzing findings is to neglect a fundamental part of what shapes a researcher's conclusions or truth claims [1].

It is important to note that these three tenets are not an exhaustive list, but rather the most relevant for the purpose of this study. In addition, it is essential to highlight that while we have separated things for the sake of description, they are interlinked. For instance, the critical impetus of CDA is to reveal ideologies and power dynamics in language. Moreover, ideologies and discourses are only likely to become dominant if the public perceives them as neutral or moderate. Thus, power in the Foucauldian sense is necessary for the imposition of an ideological standpoint as a value-free truth, as opposed to an extremist or fringe belief.

## **3. Principles for Successful Critical Discourse Analysis**

In this section, we suggest that there are three essential principles for conducting effective CDA research. As opposed to instructions or suggestions on how to conduct specific activities such as data collection and analysis, these are the principles and perspectives by which CDA researchers should work. As demonstrated in the preceding discussion and as observed by many CDA scholars, there is no right or wrong way to conduct research in CDA; nonetheless, there are right and wrong ways to think and act as a CDA researcher. In the following section, we will explain how.

#### *3.1. CDA Research Should Contribute to Social Justice*

The first essential principle for conducting effective CDA research in population health is that CDA research should advance social justice. The objective of social justice scholars and activists is "the fair distribution of society's benefits, responsibilities and their consequences" ([8] p. 1). There is a focus on the "relative position of one social group in relationship to others in society as well as on the root causes of disparities and what can be done to eliminate them" ([8] p. 1). Thus, recognizing social power dynamics is crucial for social justice aims. This principle is intertwined with the three aforementioned tenets of critical discourse analysis. CDA is inherently critical, concerned with ideology, and is committed to exposing the power dynamics underlying the phenomena it studies in order to eliminate disparities. It is therefore closely related to the aims of social justice to achieve a fair distribution of the benefits, responsibilities, and consequences of society.

In the context of population public health, social justice is the view that everyone deserves equal rights and opportunities for good health [8]. This concept is closely related to the concept of health equity, which is a core value of population public health. Health equity refers to social justice regarding health and the opportunity to attain health. Health inequities are avoidable and unfair disparities in health outcomes across populations. These are produced and reproduced by institutions, policies, and practices that create an unequal distribution of power and resources among communities based on race, class, gender, location, and other factors. Health inequities are social injustices in health. Consequently, the eradication of health inequity entails the eradication of social injustice in health [9].

The following are examples of how this might be accomplished in a CDA research project. A CDA of how perpetrators of mass violence are discursively constructed in North American news media after 9/11 must consider the association between the perpetrator's race and whether they are discursively constructed as a terrorist or a gunman. A CDA of American drug policy should examine the construction of crack cocaine consumption among black Americans and opioid use among white Americans. An additional comparison of drug-related incarceration rates by race would be a useful component of such an analysis. Lastly, a CDA of universal health promotion messages emphasizing the importance of physical activity for health must explore how such messages further marginalize individuals with disabilities in inaccessible built environments. By identifying stereotypes in the construction of marginalized communities, and in the latter case, the construction of health in a way that further excludes a disadvantaged community, these examples illustrate research that contributes to the goal of social justice to achieve a fair distribution of society's benefits.
