**3. Low Job Market Integration and Low Social Integration**

Social integration refers to the cohesion among community members, where people at least to an extent—feel part of the larger community [71]. Immigrants' social integration is vital for inclusive social and economic growth and for enhancing their ability to become productive members of society [72]. Indicators that allow immigrants to be integrated into the host communities are their local networks, transnational networks, civic engagement, citizenship participation, and political engagement [37]. Immigrants' employment and labour market integration are often considered essential factors for their social networks and social relationships, thereby enhancing social integration by promoting active participation in social activities and community networks [73]. Job and income are essential resources that help immigrants secure accommodation, interact with fellow employees, and achieve language skills for cross-cultural communication, thereby helping them find a place in the new society [72]. Although these factors help newcomers integrate with the host community and understand ethnic and cultural diversities within the community, their LJMI may reduce skilled immigrants' ability to socially integrate.

Employment and labour market integration promote social networks with various people and subsequently influence newly arrived immigrants' social integration. A study shows that Canadian mechanisms for the economic integration of skilled immigrants systematically deprive them of having similar credentials as their Canadian counterparts, which in turn lowers their self-esteem, and hinders skilled immigrants' social integration [68]. Therefore, we see recent immigrants expressing a lower level of sense of belongingness to Canadian society [74]. "A sense of belonging refers to the process through which people belonging to the community develop emotional ties among each other and is a process that imbues them with feelings of autonomy, environmental mastery, and purpose in life" [75] (93–94). In 2015, the Institute for Canadian Citizenship (ICC) published a report where respondents identified a lack of information about the Canadian system as a significant barrier for newcomers to civic participation, volunteer activities, and political engagement [76]. Civic engagement means community involvement, such as involvement with volunteer organizations [37]. Skilled immigrants also have limited opportunities

to create professional networks, and face challenges in cross-cultural connection with Canadian-born people, which is critical for integration in the job market and their social integration [77].

The above discussion shows that skilled immigrants face an unexpected situation in the Canadian job market system which forces them to struggle to manage their everyday lives after arriving in Canada [78]. Although they have similar education and foreign experience as their Canadian counterparts, they are rarely hired for jobs that match their skills. Exclusion based on double-standard exclusionary policies is invisible and generally goes unnoticed, leading newly arrived immigrants to depend on their ethnic groups. They also experience a lack of information and knowledge about Canadian culture, professional norms, and English language proficiency, which excludes them from building helpful social networks with the community. Thus, skilled immigrants experience social exclusion due to both systematic discrimination and individual-level limitations that alienate them from the mainstream social system and relationships. Access to such relationships may have enabled them to participate in the host society actively, allowing them to benefit from broader networks of solidarity and support.

If it is assumed that immigrants' social conditions account for their lack of social integration and/or job market integration, the issue may not receive the attention it deserves. The LJMI can involve being a new immigrant, not having enough language proficiency, or having training that is insufficient for the demands of Canadian employment. These factors can be explained as legitimate from the inequality lens, but racism and prejudice-related discrimination should not be ignored if we want to see skilled immigrants in a better position in Canada, where the number of racialized people is increasing rapidly every year [79]. To recognize systemic issues with major effects on the LJMI and the mental health of skilled immigrants, we should approach problem-solving from an anti-racist perspective.

#### **4. Low Social Integration and Mental Well-Being**

The Mental Health Commission of Canada (MHCC), which deals with preventing mental disease and promoting all Canadians' well-being, considers mental health an essential public health issue [80]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), mental health can be defined as a "state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and contribute to the community (p.1, [81])". Mental health is influenced by various social factors such as community area, level of income and education, employment, minority culture, relationships with friends and family, etc. [82,83]. Migration is seen as one of the significant determinants of individual health because migrants may be affected by existing social inequalities and discrimination and may subsequently face poverty, social exclusion, a lack of accessibility, and a lack of acceptability in the host country [84]. As noted above, many of these determinants are likely to affect immigrants 'social integration, which may contribute to their adverse mental health outcomes.

Although after arrival in Canada immigrants' health status has been seen as better than the Canadian-born population, their self-reported health starts to decline over time [85–87] and they suffer more from chronic diseases and mental illness than Canadianborn populations [88,89]. It has been recognized that socio-economic inequalities that exclude immigrants from mainstream society result in their poor long-term mental health outcomes [90]. Research shows that a lack of opportunities in employment hinders the acculturation process and social integration, affecting immigrants' mental well-being [91,92]. Thus, evidence shows that systematic exclusion from the job market creates a lack of social integration that negatively influences skilled immigrants' mental well-being.

Immigrants confront unexpected difficulties in getting jobs after arriving in Canada, which may increase their risk of developing negative mental health outcomes such as stress and symptoms of depression [84,93,94]. Research reveals that a lack of opportunities to get desired jobs based on the level of academic training affects skilled immigrants' mental health, including high levels of stress [95]. A study shows that people who are overqualified

for their current job are more likely to experience adverse mental well-being [96]. Therefore, evidence demonstrates that skilled immigrants' low job market integration affects their mental health outcomes.

Post-immigration barriers that skilled immigrants face may negatively impact their overall mental health. As a result, skilled immigrants experience sadness, depression, and loneliness [95]. The discounting of immigrants' skills by employers leads to a lower economic status where they feel depressed [91], lower levels of life satisfaction [97], and lower levels of self-esteem [98]. Skilled immigrants engaged in low-skill jobs earn less money, which also increases the risk of psychiatric disorders [99]. Research shows that in Nova Scotia, immigrant populations are more likely to have a higher rate of mental health disorders [100]. After arriving in Canada, immigrants' health started to decline over time due to various factors, including environmental, economic, and socio-cultural factors and factors involved with integration into the host society [101,102].
