*3.5. Economic and Educational Transitions in China and Central Asia*

Urbanization, strategic positioning, trade, and competition between Russia and China have influenced development in Central Asia since WWII, with a shift in the balance of power toward China in trade and economic growth since the breakdown of the Soviet Union [106,107]. China's ascent in world trade in Central Asia was part of its emergence as a dominant global economic power.

While Eastern European nations embraced democratic ideals after the breakup of the Soviet Union, China pioneered a different course. As China's boundaries in Central Asia expanded, it promoted opportunities for immigrant Han populations over indigenous residents in the regions it governs. This practice has been especially problematic and visible internationally in China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Inequality in college access for Uyghur students has become a vital issue of increasing concern in the international discourse on education equality [108,109].

China departed from the path taken by post-Soviet nations in higher education finance and institutional governance. China followed the Soviet approach with dual academic and technical secondary and postsecondary education and has retained dual collegiate pathways [110]. China has loan programs, has studied the repayment burdens [15], and is currently considering the Australian approach to debt repayment [16]. After the USSR broke up, China did not convert to democratic governmentand did not engage in globalization until the second wave emphasized international corporatization rather than political institutions [9]. China balanced the features of public and private higher education systems as it expanded rapidly this century [110]. Even when compared to other rapidly growing higher education in other East Asian nations, China made a remarkable and rapid transition, expanding educational opportunities and access as it developed new forms of decentralization and innovation [111]

The Chinese Communist Party has evolved a dual system of governance, with a parallel Party hierarchy and governing structures within universities, private corporations, and other entities. The hybrid form of academic administration in China is unique. It has allowed universities to respond to local and global developments, undertake new educational and research initiatives, and build international academic partnerships. Yet, the Communist Party has made demands on academic research in many fields, including social scientists engaged in studies of education reforms. National plans, along with Communist Party priorities, can constrain content and interpretations as part of internal reviews of academic papers in social sciences, sometimes increasing uncertainty in external reviews by international journals.

#### *3.6. Education Development Strategies and Issues*

This review illustrates that strategies for educational development vary substantially across regions and nations. The tension between traditional and market-based public finance strategies for expanding access was a source of conflict during the neoliberal transition. As we enter the post-neoliberal period, comparisons of contexts take on a renewed importance, especially concerning the rights of people in this new period. In addition to comparing the expansion of progressive education using free college, we have several examples of loan adoption at the national level, the approach recommended as part of the Washington Consensus. Since nations widely adopted student loans in the Pacific region, evidence about social issues emerged after countries adopted this policy. This review reveals:


Addressing social issues emerging from neoliberal policies should be foundational in social research during this new period. Research on diverse groups within a nation can inform the development and change of education policy in countries, provinces, and states. Social research can also inform social initiatives that empower people to overcome barriers and expand and equalize chances for education success and economic wellbeing. A human-capabilities approach to social and policy research can inform interventions seeking to promote opportunities within the constraints of educational systems in rapidly changing times.
