**3. Materials and Methods**

This section explains the use of a comparative case study to explore two programs: a community-based programme, Trinity Access 21 (TA21), Trinity College Dublin and a university-based programme, Lady Margaret Hall Foundation Year (LMH FY), the University of Oxford. A case study is "an in-depth examination, over time, of a single case", whereas comparative case studies "cover two of more cases in a way that produces more generalisable knowledge about how and why particular programmes or policies work or fail to work" [23]. A comparative case study is useful to understand how context influences the implementation of an intervention. This section also provides an overview of the capability approach as the exploratory lens applied to the qualitative outcomes of both programs.

This comparative case study (CCS) poses two questions: (1) How did the admissions processes in both universities change to target low-SES students? (2) How do social and academic support services for low-SES students, provided by two universities, contribute to the development of student capabilities? The CCS is undertaken in the context of a collaboration between Trinity College Dublin and LMH Oxford University (2016–2020) in the development of a foundation year and an adapted admissions process. TA21 developed from an experienced team (Trinity Access Programmes/TAP), which had built a range of community- and university-based programs and admissions processes over a 20-year period. The LMH FY developed in partnership with TAP but from a team that had limited experience in developing such programs. Despite this, the LMH community had a strong commitment to improving diversity and leading admissions change in the University of Oxford.

The TA21 (community-based) developed in response to team experience and the research evidence base, which indicated a range of challenges for low-SES students in second-level education. Smyth and McCoy note that schools in areas of low-SES have a higher proportion of "newcomer" (immigrant) students, students with disabilities and traveller students than schools in more affluent areas and have a higher incidence of serious literacy and numeracy problems, emotional and behavioural problems, absenteeism, lower student motivation, problematic student–teacher relationships and less parental involvement [24].

The LMH Foundation Year (university-based) arose in the context of persistent inequalities in accessing selective universities in the UK and the research evidence base, which indicated that barriers to greater equality in higher education included the prior academic attainment of students, inadequate advice and support during school and financial concerns about the cost of higher education.

The CCS draws on the recent research and evidence base for both programs in the form of published peer-reviewed articles and internal university publications and reports. It uses a capability approach lens to explore the available qualitative findings on the impact of both programs on participating students. It also draws on the relevant literature and policy context within both domains. Table 1 below describes the key features of each programme:


**Table 1.** Targeted programs in Ireland and the UK to improve access to HE for low-SES students.


**Table 1.** *Cont.*

#### *3.1. Overview of Comparative Case Study Programme A: Trinity Access 21*

This section explains the TA21 programme, which is the main educational outreach programme within Trinity Access Programmes (TAP), Trinity College Dublin. The TA21 programme evolved from a 20-year evidence base in practice and policy to improve low-SES progression to higher education. It aimed to address two problems: first, that in addition to the educational barriers caused by poverty, there was limited educational guidance, subject choice and educational role models within some schools. Second, the post-primary curriculum is considered to be inflexible and focused on the terminal exams [25–27].

The overarching goal of TA21 is to address these two problems through the delivery of a suite of programmes for students and the provision of professional development for teachers, both of which are embedded in an iterative cycle of data collection and analysis, feedback to schools and consultation with stakeholders [25].

There are 20 "leader" schools in the project, all of which are post-primary schools located in low-SES communities. In addition, there are 40 linked "network" schools associated with the project. These are spread over a wide geographic area and receive less direct support from the team. The "leader" and "network" schools approach allows the project to scale both deep and wide and to use learning from the scaling deep in scaling more broadly within the "network" schools.

The TA21 project is underpinned by a "widening capability" [29] model of widening participation and aims to shift from a focus solely on student progression to one that includes student potential and capability. TA21 draws on a US intervention, CFES Brilliant Pathways, which has three components derived from the theory of Academic Capital Formation [29] that aim to increase students' understanding of college application and support services (Pathways to College), provide individual mentoring of students (Mentoring) and develop students' leadership skills (Leadership through Service). A fourth aspect—twenty-first century (21C) teaching and learning—was added to the original CFES model with the goal of supporting teachers to transform their pedagogical approaches to help develop students' key 21C skills. This final component was combined with Leadership through Service, as there was significant overlap between many of the skills that were developed through participation in both practices. The new core practice has been termed Leadership in Learning [26].

This subsection has explained the TA21 programme. The following subsection explains the LMH FY programme.
