*2.2. Postsecondary Education and VET Education in Less-Developed Countries*

Nations not classified as developed and not included in World Bank data are making efforts to develop economically. There are significant variations in their economies and histories. Africa has a long history of European colonization and has been slow to emerge from poverty. Latin American nations are also in varying stages of development. Many South Asian countries are still not highly developed but are well integrated into the global high-tech supply chain.

In the 2000s, most developing nations viewed investment in vocational and technical education as integral to the pathway toward economic development. Pavlova and Mclean [55] argued that there are increasing trends in the vocationalization of tertiary education in less-developed countries, since vocational training remains a pathway to national economic uplift. Developing a skilled workforce increases a country's competitiveness, expanding opportunities to engage in producing goods and parts in an increasingly complex and fluid global economy. By the turn of the century, nations' decisions about whether to engage in the global economy would have a long-term impact on their economies, educational systems, and prospects of civil society, including the moral consequences of economic growth within supply chains. Most developing countries offer vocational education through secondary education, and further training through vocational colleges and institutes or private contractors. Pavlova and Mclean [55] advocated for providing technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in secondary education with a curriculum tailored towards specific jobs, or narrowing the breadth of tertiary education and focusing on employability.

Each nation's pathway to economic development is distinct and involves aligning learning and work opportunities, but there are regional patterns. We compare a few cases within Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia to illustrate some regional educational and economic barriers and challenges.

#### 2.2.1. African Nations

Vocational education and training vary substantially across African countries. The K-12 and university systems are also less developed than in other regions. The indigenous capacity for building VET programs is limited. Climate change, wars, and disease challenge many countries. In Africa, a country's colonial past usually determines the present structure of VET [56]. We provide one example to illustrate the challenges of aligning education with national economic development, before examining the recent critical literature.

Before the 2010s, VET education had been a low priority in Africa for a quarter century [57]. For example, a former British colony, Ghana, underwent rapid economic uplift during the early 20th century: the average annual GDP increased by 8.1 percentage points in 2017 compared to 9.1 percentage points in 2008 and 14 percent in 2011 [58]. Fast economic growth, mainly driven by oil and gas production output expansion, creates favorable labor market conditions for highly skilled populations. However, as in other emerging economies, vocational education and training in Ghana face challenges including rural–urban migration and demand for skilled human capital from more developed countries [59–62]. However, despite the endorsement of TVET at the national level, enrollment and completion rates remained lower than planned. Analysts point to the lack of prestige associated with TVET, lack of resources, and poor alignment of TVET with the market [59]. Gender parity is also weak for TVET, with the female student population comprising only 37.1 percent of enrollment [63].

Africa as a region continues to face severe challenges in delivering short-cycle VET programs. UNESCO now argues that developing a clear account of how to improve VET must be part of a transformative approach to development [64]. There is a growing understanding that conventional theories of development do not fit the challenges faced by African nations [64]. Sustainability is also emerging as a core issue; the African Union recently identified agriculture and rural development as priorities for technical and vocational training and skills development in Nigeria [65] and possibly in other African nations.
