*3.2. Enrollment in Tertiary Short-Cycle (Mostly Vocational) Programs*

At the turn of the century, funding organizations learned that vocational/technical education was more costly than academic programs and pre-employment vocational training was more expensive than in-service training [80], leading to public–private partnerships in many instances [81]. Since private corporations are often involved in training, public– private partnerships may benefit colleges and universities financially and speed up the

innovation process [82]. Literacy, a necessity for industrial work, was still a challenge in less-developed nations lacking primary education for all citizens [83]. Total enrollment (headcount and percentage) in short-cycle tertiary programs or ISCED level 5 education decreased from 2000 to 2018 for the selected developed countries (most EU countries, plus the UK and New Zealand) (Figures 3 and 4).

**Figure 3.** Total enrollment (headcount) in short-cycle tertiary programs (ISCED 5) by countries' development status.

**Figure 4.** Total enrollment in short-cycle tertiary programs (ISCED 5) as a percentage of total enrollment in tertiary education by countries' development status.

The increased manufacturing activities beginning in 2013 in Eastern Europe corresponded with the drop in short-term training. Increased manufacturing activities created jobs for people who completed training programs for work. Growth in employment in Central and Eastern Europe seems to have been a force for change in manufacturing activities and short-cycle training, with a decline in training as the workforce expanded [84,85]. Economists have long noted that increases in employment decrease college enrollment of students meeting minimal qualifications [86,87]. In less-developed countries, although the percentage of short-cycle programs in total tertiary enrollment declined generally, the enrollment headcount in short-cycle training programs grew substantially between 2000 and 2013 but declined after 2013. As shown in Figure 3, enrollments fell sharply over a year or two, which could have been an effect of global recession, then stabilized at a lower level. Several factors contributed to the increased public investment in these programs in the pre-2013 period. Corresponding to the drop in enrollment in short-cycle courses in less-developed countries after 2013, the World Bank began to advocate for evaluations of the systematic impact of this investment. They argued that research could help inform nations about these shifts and related nuances [88].
