2.2.2. Expanding College Opportunities

Most developed nations have moved towards universal preparation for tertiary education with collegiate and technical pathways [38]. The US STEM strategy constrained the opportunities available for high school students, emphasizing the STEM pipeline to jobs for the high-tech economy [39]. In contrast, most European nations maintained technical pathways and strengthened vocational and technical options at tertiary institutions, promoting working-class employment and high-tech opportunities [39–41]. In contrast, many less-developed countries, including China, have sought to move to mass higher education, yet many still do not provide K-12 for all students.

The Bologna agreement and process started a new wave of international exchange in education by moving toward common credit mechanisms and opportunities to enroll in institutions across Europe. This process increased the appeal of EU universities to Chinese students as well. The high cost of American higher education has become a barrier for some international students. Ireland and most other Western European countries have maintained college affordability [42–44]. Declining college affordability is an additional factor in the US regression in access ranking compared to other OECD nations [45]. The narrowing of the high school curriculum to marginalize technical preparation has also influenced the reduction in the US in the percentage of high school graduates enrolling in college.

Ensuring socioeconomic and racial diversity in elite universities is a critical issue related to economic competitiveness and social mobility in the EU and the US. These aims influenced the exchange of Chinese college students to prepare coming generations of for engagement in a global economy [46]. Economic inequality within nations has been a motivating factor for reshaping university outreach to low-income students in developed countries throughout the global period [47,48]. Educational inequality between the northern and southern hemispheres continues to be challenging, especially for underdeveloped African countries [49].
