*2.2. Transforming Patterns of Education Development*

The American colonies appealed to English philanthropists for college funding, usually claiming they would educate native people, but expanding the opportunities available for colonists was an underlying aim [19]. The University of London first offered distance degrees for children across the British Empire in 1858 (https://www.newworldencyclopedia. org/entry/Distance\_education accessed on 2 February 2023). As schools and universities expanded globally, colonizing nations disseminated national models and languages [20]. These early arrangements set in motion the diaspora of institutional forms within empires, easing the international exchange of students within these networks.

German universities were the first to establish doctoral education on a large scale, as Germany became the center of scientific discovery in the nineteenth century. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, German universities enjoyed extensive graduate enrollment, as universities in the US and other nations developed graduate programs organized at first by Germany's Ph.D. graduates. International study proceeded within and across alliances through World War II and the Cold War. American universities enjoyed the most extensive international enrollment, in part because the Carnegie credit hours made credit transfer easier than was possible in most other nations. There has always been international study, however. After high school, students might choose to attend college in another country.

Germany was the center of scientific discourse in physics before WWII, but the migration of top Jewish physicists due to Nazi oppression began before the war [21]. This drain of physicists influenced the competition to build an atomic bomb during the war. The migration of German physicists to Russia and the West influenced the competition to produce bigger and better bombs throughout the Cold War. It also influenced the space race. Responding to this sinister form of international competition, Western democracies and Russia expanded funding for science during the Cold War.

The end of the Cold War accelerated cooperation in science, further breaking down East–West barriers to academic exchange. International collaboration in science accelerated throughout the global period. For example, the International Space Station, a joint venture involving the United States, Russia, Canada, Japan, and countries in the European Space Agency, illustrated cooperation in space [22]. However, the rekindled Cold War now emerging in this new period of uncertainty has dampened academic exchange, even as international corporations function as mechanisms for technology transfer through the still-evolving supply chain and organizational partnerships between the US and China [23].
