*3.3. Using the "Capability Approach" to Explore the Qualitative Data*

Drawing on the qualitative data from both of the CCS programs, a capability approach is used as an exploratory lens. Robeyns [41] argues that regardless of whether we focus on structure or agency, individual well-being should be the "ultimate unit of moral concern". The capability approach is a theoretical framework with two core-normative claims. First, the claim that freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that this freedom is to be understood in terms of individual capabilities, that is, their real opportunity is to do and be what they have reason to value [42]. An individual's capability represents their freedom or real opportunity set [43].

In recent times, the capability approach has been used to explore policy and practice in education, as an alternative framework to human capital theory, through which the process, purpose and impact of education can be evaluated [44–46]. Developed by Amartya Sen [47–49] and subsequently elaborated by Martha Nussbaum [50–52], the key idea of the capability approach is that social arrangements should aim to expand people's capabilities, which is their freedom to promote or achieve functionings that are important to them.

A key concept in the approach is people's "functionings": these are the "beings" or "doings" that are important to them, such as being able to access adequate food, accommodation or having time to read. The capability to achieve a functioning depends on a range of personal and social factors that vary across geographies and contexts. Focusing on the individual's *capability to achieve a functioning* rather than the function alone recognises the different circumstances of people and their varying preferences [53]. The capability approach has four central concepts [54–56]. These are:


complex states, such as being happy or having self-respect. A functioning is the active realisation of capabilities.


Individuals differ in their capacity to convert capabilities into functionings and conversion factors, such as structural or social arrangements, influence their exercise of agency.
