2.1.2. EU Countries

Created by the Maastricht Treaty and ratified by all members of the European Community, the EU was formed in 1993 to oversee economic and political integration. Most of the developed countries in our study are in the EU, an international organization that facilitates political integration, collaborates on education development, and fosters economic development through trade among nations within the EU and with other major trading partners. The Bologna Process is a unique internal collaboration coordinated within the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). The organization facilitates student mobility and employability and aligns educational development in the EU. This binding form of regional cooperation establishes a common context for vocational education and training (VET).

In 2010, the European Commission [36] developed plans to expand VET to meet the demand for higher-skilled workers and the need for medium- and high-level qualifications for the economy of 2020, an emphasis that eventually upgraded short-cycle programs into bachelor's degrees. The Commission's plans were consistent with the World Bank's [37] view: to upgrade technical and vocational education and training so students could gain skills and knowledge relevant to labor markets. This new stance departed from the Washington Consensus, which emphasized the privatization of postsecondary education that had dominated a decade earlier [19]. Increasing VET became a public policy priority in the EU, where most nations developed trade agreements protecting the working class, a step the US did not take [12]. EU nations used student grants, loans, or other financial aid to invest in VET and higher education [38], a path not chosen in the US, Latin America, or South Asia. The US also provided grants, loans, and other financial aid to many VET students in community colleges, but the unmet financial needs for attending four-year colleges widened [39]. In contrast to the US, states increased high math and science requirements for graduation in public and private high schools, and the proprietary sector in the US expanded to meet the demand for technical tertiary courses by using loans to aid students [23].

In contrast, European countries prioritized VET and higher education, aiming to increase the percentage of 30–34-year-olds holding degrees [38]. Within the EU, Ireland is small but unique [23,40]. Even after independence, it maintained the academic norm evolving from British rule, especially at the university level. However, unlike England, Ireland maintained technical programs of less than four years in tertiary institutions. Their programs helped build a new technical workforce for the booming high-tech economy. In addition, with support from Google Foundation and later from the national government, universities developed partnerships to support access and community development in schools serving low-income neighborhoods, resulting in a rise to the top of the EU college enrollment rates [40]. Cambridge and Oxford have developed their version of the access model that was started at Trinity College Dublin, an approach that influenced recent gains in national college access in Ireland.

In contrast, Germany is a leading nation in the EU, and the German university system, widely adapted in other countries, continues to influence models of academic organization [41]. Germany led the world in sciences and social sciences before WWII, but many leading scholars left before the war, and Germany's universities have not regained their status. Technische Universität München, the most highly ranked German University, is placed 50 in the global rankings [42]. The USA and Britain now dominate the top spots in international university rankings. The narrow approach to ranking does not value the legacy of connectivity between science, technology, and education. As WWII approached, the US, Britain, and Russia competed for German scientists. This history influenced Germany's trade protectionism after WWII [26]. The global university ranking schemes overlook

these and other societal aspects of university development [43]. The German K-20 model deserves greater attention in the US and other nations outside the EU.

VET is integral to secondary and higher education in Germany, which embrace apprenticeship-based vocational education, meaning that education happens in both the classroom and on-the-job training settings. In 2012, about 60 percent of most age cohorts pursued VET within the upper secondary system, but only 13 percent of that 60 percent completed a postsecondary vocational degree [44]. Germany had no unified system of institutions or agencies that regulated tertiary vocational education, creating a complicated regulatory environment. Land governments (e.g., the state/province) regulate VET. Federal and land governments share responsibility for higher education funding, with the former constituting about 18 percent of the total funding [45]. Chambers (i.e., labor market associations) of commerce and craft can also regulate specific areas of vocational programs connecting education with the labor market. Although training in vocational skills takes place at the learning sites, the chamber of commerce or crafts administers a centralized examination to assess trainees' skills, adhering to the principle that the teacher and the examiner should not be one and the same [46].

There is a history of postsecondary technical on-the-job training in Germany. "Berufsakademien (professional academies) form part of the tertiary sector and combine academic training at a Studienakademie (study institution) with practical professional training in a training establishment, thus constituting a duales System (dual system)" [47]. Companies that hire students subsidize education by paying wages and bearing partial costs for degrees [47]. Thus, Germany has a comprehensive open-access vocational education system with multiple pathways and relatively low barriers within pre- and postsecondary systems. After completing either of the education tracks, students may complete a bachelor's degree or a "Diplom".

While Italy was a leader in math and sciences during the Age of Enlightenment, the University of Bologna, ranked 161, is the most highly rated Italian university [48]. The legacies of the Catholic tradition and fascism have hampered the development of Italian universities [49,50]. Even though Italy did not sustain its role in global leadership, its postsecondary education adapted to support the working middle class. In Italy, vocational and technical training are part of upper-secondary education. Parallel to the vocational track in public schools, students can complete two to four years of vocational training programs organized regionally and closely aligned with local job markets [51]. Italian students with a five-year upper-secondary education diploma have open access to higher education. Academic performance does not restrict students' educational choices.

Most students in Italy (56 percent) choose VET, while a relatively low number of students enroll in academic programs in tertiary education (30 percent of native-born students) [36]. Interestingly, Contini and Triventi [51] regard open access to education and low cost as reasons for downward mobility (i.e., students first enter the academic track and then move to the vocational/technical track during upper-secondary education). The vocational sector provides options that prepare students for tertiary advancement and opportunities in the labor market.

Italy's integration of VET within the secondary and higher education systems is a typical pattern in many EU countries, as is the emphasis on this form of education. Across the diverse educational systems, integration of VET is a priority, consistent with the European Commission's stated aims.
