Quaternary

On 2015, after the direct study of the most important Late Villafranchian fossil collections of Europe and Western Asia, including Orce (Spain), Pirro Nord and Upper Valdarno (Italy), Appollonia (Greece), Dmanisi (Georgia) and ‘Ubeidiya (Israel), among others, our team proposed the hypothesis that suids disappeared from Europe during the time span between 1.8 and 1.2 Ma. The implications of our conclusions were significant, the arrival of Early Homo into Western Europe, dated to 1.4 Ma at the site of Barranco León in Orce (Spain), preceded the return of pigs into the continent at 1.2 Ma. This hypothesis has been recently challenged because of the finding of an incomplete metatarsal ascribed to Sus sp., with no clear stratigraphic origin, found in the XIX Century Croizet collection of Peyrolles (France), which is housed in the Natural History Museum, London, together with other weak arguments based on the absence of reliable dating for many Early Pleistocene European sites, and other hypothetical records of pigs, with no real fossil support. We answer all these questions and defend that our 2015 hypothesis is correct. Full article

In the Afrotropic biogeographic realm, with its diverse and high-density mammal population, early humans may have been hunting with stone-tipped weapons since ~500,000 years ago. Being able to hunt effectively from a distance has several important adaptive advantages. Yet, until now, African long-range javelin hunting remained unexplored as intermediate between short/medium-range, hand-delivered and long-range, mechanically projected weapons. Insights gained from a new Afrotropic comparative dataset with 950 weapon tips of known use—including several javelin types—provide a contextually appropriate middle-range tool for assessing the probable effective hunting ranges of Middle Stone Age points. We use a novel application of the ballistically relevant tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) statistic to define contact, short-, medium-, long- and maximum-range hunting and discuss the adaptive advantages for each. The approach is applied to suggest developments and variations in the best-fit hunting ranges of 5597 stone points from 62 Middle Stone Age Afrotropic assemblages. By aligning our results with the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) record we hypothesize that effective long-range (~20–30 m) hunting with stone-tipped weapons was probably not practiced by ≥MIS 8, and that experimentation with long-range javelins—similar to those used by contemporary Ethiopian hunters—over these distances may have started during MIS 6, becoming part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal by the end of MIS 5. Full article

Collecting is a form of leisure, and even a passion, consisting of collecting, preserving and displaying objects. When we look for its origin in the literature, we are taken back to “the appearance of writing and the fixing of knowledge”, specifically with the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal (7th century BC, Mesopotamia), and his fondness for collecting books, which in his case were in the form of clay tablets. This is not, however, a true reflection, for we have evidence of much earlier collectors. The curiosity and interest in keeping stones or fossils of different colors and shapes, as manuports, is as old as we are. For decades we have had evidence of objects of no utilitarian value in Neanderthal homes. Several European sites have shown that these Neanderthal groups treasured objects that attracted their attention. On some occasions, these objects may have been modified to make a personal ornament and may even have been integrated into subsistence activities such as grinders or hammers. Normally, one or two such specimens are found but, to date, no Neanderthal cave or camp has yielded as many as the N4 level of Prado Vargas Cave. In the N4 Mousterian level of Prado Vargas, 15 specimens of Upper Cretaceous marine fossils belonging to the Gryphaeidae, Pectinidae, Cardiidae, Pholadomyidae, Pleurotomariidae, Tylostomatidae and Diplopodiidae families were found in the context of clay and autochthonous cave sediments. During MIS 3, a group of Neanderthals transported at least fifteen marine fossils, which were collected from various Cretaceous units located in the surrounding area, to the Prado Vargas cave. The fossils, with one exception, show no evidence of having been used as tools; thus, their presence in the cave could be attributed to collecting activities. These activities could have been motivated by numerous tangible and intangible causes, which suggest that collecting activities and the associated abstract thinking were present in Neanderthals before the arrival of modern humans. Full article

Humans are well known to have made paintings and engravings on rock surfaces, both geometric motifs with an unclear representation, and representative motifs that refer to their activities and aspects of their environment. This kind of art is widespread across time and space and has throughout history been subjected to various kinds of approaches. Typically, rock art research focuses on its role in the development of the hominin brain and the capability of abstract thinking, as well as on interpreting representative and non-representative motifs. Ethnography and cognitive research have often stressed that rock art is the result of ritual practises and the expression of a shamanic belief system. However, representative motifs may also shed light on a region’s ecological and human prehistory. Here, we give an overview of the general development of rock art study: we highlight the development of artistic behaviour in humans by discussing aesthetic preferences, and the creation of simple geometric motifs and eventually representative motifs, before describing the theories that developed from the earliest study of rock art. These have largely focused on classification and interpretation of the motifs, and often centred on Palaeolithic material from Europe. We then move on to discuss how ethnography among rock art creating communities often suggests important relationships between specific animals in both the realms of spiritual belief systems and within the local environment. Lastly, we highlight how rock art reflects the local penecontemporaneous environment when it comes to depictions of animals, plants, technologies, humans and their activities. We argue that animal depictions are a useful subject to study on a large scale, as it is the most widespread representative motif, and the most appropriate subject to study when the goal is to draw conclusions on environmental changes. Rock art can fill gaps in the local archaeological record and generate new questions of it, but also offer new insights into the history of local human–animal interaction: animal species depicted and/or referred to in rock art are likely to have been a selection of spiritually important animals and a comparison to known information on human interactions with local species may reveal patterns among which animals are selected for local rock art depictions and which are not. Interregional comparison can in turn shed light on whether humans in general tend to ascribe meaning to the same types of animals. We end the review with suggestions for future study, with a special role for computational methods, which are suitable for the analysis of large databases of visual imagery. Full article

A 7.4 m long sediment core has been retrieved from the central part of Lake Vrana on the island of Cres to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental conditions. Lake Vrana is the deepest freshwater lake in Croatia, located in the karst region of the eastern Adriatic coast. A dated sediment sequence in Lake Vrana of 4.4 m has spanned the past 16.4 kyr, and it featured a dynamic sediment deposition until the beginning of the Holocene, including strong sediment input and supply to the lake by runoff sediments of dolomitic origin from the catchment in the period 16.4–14.4 cal kyr BP. High organic carbon content, which originates from mixed terrestrial and aquatic origins in the periods 14.4–13.3 cal kyr BP and 12.7–11.7 cal kyr BP, indicates fluctuating lake levels in shallow water environments during the Late Glacial to Holocene transition. The Holocene sequence indicates the development of more stable conditions and continuous sediment deposition, characterized by an increasing trend of siliciclastic sediments delivered into the lake during the early Holocene (11.7–10 cal kyr BP) and dominantly from 8 to 4.4 cal kyr BP, indicating enhanced input and erosion, which coincides with the humid and pluvial period recorded in the central Mediterranean region. It is followed by sediments with high organic carbon content between 4.4 and 1.6 cal kyr BP, which points to higher lake productivity. Calcite sedimentation prevailed between 1.6 to 0.4 cal kyr BP, indicating stable deeper-lake conditions. Predominantly, siliciclastic sediments from 0.4 to 0.1 cal kyr BP pointed to erosion during the Little Ice Age (LIA), with enhanced precipitation and sediment discharge from the catchment. The re-establishment of calcite sedimentation has been observed over the last 100 years. Full article

Quaternary stream sediments and beach black sand in north-western Saudi Arabia (namely Wadi Thalbah, Wadi Haramil and Wadi Al Miyah) are characterized by the enrichment of heavy minerals. Concentrates of the heavy minerals in two size fractions (63–125 μm and 125–250 μm) are considered as potential sources of “strategic” accessory minerals. A combination of mineralogical, geochemical and spectroscopic data of opaque and non-opaque minerals is utilized as clues for provenance. ThO₂ (up to 17.46 wt%) is correlated with UO₂ (up to 7.18 wt%), indicating a possible uranothorite solid solution in zircon. Hafnoan zircon (3.6–5.75 wt% HfO₂) is a provenance indicator that indicates a granitic source, mostly highly fractionated granite. In addition, monazite characterizes the same felsic provenance with rare-earth element oxides (La, Ce, Nd and Sm amounting) up to 67.88 wt%. These contents of radionuclides and rare-earth elements assigned the investigated zircon and monazite as “strategic” minerals. In the bulk black sand, V₂O₅ (up to 0.36 wt%) and ZrO₂ (0.57 wt%) are correlated with percentages of magnetite and zircon. Skeletal or star-shaped Ti-magnetite is derived from the basaltic flows. Mn-bearing ilmenite, with up to 5.5 wt% MnO, is derived from the metasediments. The Fourier-transform infrared transmittance (FTIR) spectra indicate lattice vibrational modes of non-opaque silicate heavy minerals, e.g., amphiboles. In addition, the FTIR spectra show O-H vibrational stretching that is related to magnetite and Fe-oxyhydroxides, particularly in the magnetic fraction. Raman data indicate a Verwey transition in the spectrum of magnetite, which is partially replaced by possible ferrite/wüstite during the measurements. The Raman shifts at 223 cm⁻¹ and 460 cm⁻¹ indicate O-Ti-O symmetric stretching vibration and asymmetric stretching vibration of Fe-O bonding in the FeO₆ octahedra, respectively. The ultraviolet-visible-near infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectra confirm the dominance of ferric iron (Fe³⁺) as well as some Si⁴⁺ transitions of magnetite (226 and 280 nm) in the opaque-rich fractions. Non-opaque heavy silicates such as hornblende and ferrohornblende are responsible for the 192 nm intensity band. Full article

Two zoogenic deposits from the central part of the Negev Desert (Israel) were investigated by stable isotopes (carbon ¹³C/¹²C and nitrogen ¹⁵N/¹⁴N) and pollen analyses. The merger of these data and results of radiocarbon dating of Atzmaut and Ramon I deposits enabled us to reconstruct climate and vegetation changes in the Negev Desert over the past 8500 years. Decrease of the δ¹³C value in plant remains is a sensitive indicator of paleoclimatic conditions in the region. The decline of the δ¹³C value over the past 8500 years almost fully coincides with an increase of the total pollen concentration, the proportion of Poaceae pollen in the profile of zoogenic deposits and wetter periods. Thus, four humid periods are identified, from the middle of the 4th millennium to the end of 3rd millennium BC, the 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC, from the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC to the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD and the middle of the 2nd millennium AD. The δ¹⁵N value of plant remains is a less sensitive indicator of climate dynamics and represents the most significant change of precipitation in the region by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Full article

We present the reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions in the Gdansk, Bornholm, and Arkona Basins of the Baltic Sea over the last millennium. A multiproxy study (including geochemical, XRF, grain size, AMS, and micropalaeontological analyses) of five short sediment cores was performed. The relative age of the sediments was determined based on the Pb distribution along the sediment sequences, as radiocarbon dating has resulted in an excessively old age. The retrieved cores cover two comparable warm periods, the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Modern Warm Period, for which the increase in surface water productivity was reconstructed. Notably, the production of diatoms was higher during the colder periods (the Dark Ages and Little Ice Age), but this was also the case within the Modern Warm Period. In the Gdansk Basin, the initial salinity increase during the Littorina transgression started after 7.7 cal. a BP. The increased inflow activity was reconstructed during the Medieval Climate Anomaly, even in the Gdansk Basin, despite, in general, very low foraminiferal amounts and diversity. The strongly positive North Atlantic Oscillation Index during this period led to the prevalence of westerly winds over the Baltic region and stronger saltwater intrusions. In the recent sediments, the reconstructed inflow frequency demonstrates a variability against the reduction trend, and a general decline compared to the Medieval Climate Anomaly is seen. Full article

The Villafranchian stage in the mammal fauna evolution in Eurasia (ca. 3.6/3.4 Ma—ca. 1.2 Ma) is associated with the beginning of the formation of the modern appearance of the mammal megafauna of today’s Palaearctic. The cooling and the aridification starting with the beginning of the Early Pleistocene gradually eliminated the quasi-tropical appearance of the Late Neogene landscapes and fauna of Europe. The time from the Mid-Piacenzian (ca. 3.3–3.0 Ma) to the end of the Early Pleistocene was a time of particularly intense dispersal of species, of faunal exchange between Eurasia and Africa, and of the entry of new mammals into Europe from the East. That is why the correlation of the biochronology of the Villafranchian fauna between Eastern and Western Europe is of particular interest. Accumulated data make possible a more precise correlation of these faunas today. A correlation of selected Eastern European localities with established faunal units and MNQ zones is made in the present work. Usually, the dispersal from Asia or from E. Europe to W. Europe is instantaneous from a geological point of view, but in a number of cases, reaching W. Europe happens later, or some species known to be from Eastern Europe do not reach Western Europe. The main driving forces of the faunal dispersals, which are the key bioevents in the faunal formation, are climate changes, which in turn, affect the environment. We can summarize the following more significant Villafranchian bioevents in Europe: the End Pliocene (Early Villafranchian: MNQ16) turnover related to the first appearance of a number of taxa, for example, felids, canids, proboscideans, and ungulates; the Quaternary beginning turnover. Correlated with this are the beginning of the Middle Villafranchian, which should be placed at about 2.6 Ma; the Coste San Giacomo faunal unit turnover (Senèze and Slivnitsa localities should be included here, and the FU itself, at the very beginning of the late Villafranchian (=MNQ18a)); the Pachycrocuta event at the very beginning of the Olivola FU; and the events related to the Late Villafranchian/Epivillafranchian bounfary. Full article

The known Plio-Pleistocene mammalian record, mainly represented by small mammals, and its biotic and geological context in the vast region of Eastern Turkey and Transcaucasus provides a sound base for regional biochronology. Recently obtained faunal associations and the main evolutionary lineages found in the region support direct correlations to the European (ELMA/MN/MQ) and the Eastern European (faunal complexes/MQR-MNR) biochronological systems. Important data on palynology, aquatic and terrestrial mollusks, and magnetostratigraphy integrate the reviewed material into a robust local biochronology. The range of standard biochrons of Early Pliocene through late Early Pleistocene and the regional Anatolian zones M-P are reliably detected. The Early Pleistocene time range (zone P) is refined based on rhizodont lagurines Borsodia and Euro-Asian larger voles Mimomys ex gr. pliocaenicus. The successive zone R for Early Pleistocene faunas with early rootless Microtini is proposed. Full article

Recent investigations in the upper Lower–Middle Pleistocene deposits of the Megalopolis Basin (Greece) led to the discovery of several sites/findspots with abundant faunal material. Here, we provide an updated overview including new results on the micro- and macro-mammal fauna. Important new discoveries comprise partial hippopotamus skeletons from Marathousa 1 and the new Lower Pleistocene site Choremi 6, as well as a second partial elephant skeleton from Marathousa 1, including a complete tusk and the rarely found stylohyoideum. Based on the first results from the newly collected micromammals, we discuss age constraints of the sites, and we provide biostratigraphic/biochronologic remarks on key mammal taxa for the Middle Pleistocene of Greece and southeastern Europe. The presence of mammals highly dependent on freshwater for their survival, together with temperate-adapted ones in several stratigraphic layers of the basin, including those correlated with glacial stages, when conditions were colder and/or drier, indicate the capacity of the basin to retain perennial freshwater bodies under milder climatic conditions, even during the harsher glacial periods of the European Middle Pleistocene, and further support its refugial status. Yet, the smaller dimensions of the Megalopolis hippopotamuses may represent a response to the changing environmental conditions of the epoch, not optimal for hippopotamuses. Overall, the Megalopolis Basin comprises a unique fossil record for southeastern Europe and provides valuable insights into the Middle Pleistocene terrestrial ecosystems of Europe, and hominin adaptations in particular. Full article

The Vallparadís Section encompasses various geological layers that span a significant chronological range, extending from the latest Early Pleistocene to the early Middle Pleistocene, covering a timeframe from approximately 1.2 to 0.6 Ma. This period holds particular importance, as it coincides with a significant climatic transition known as the Early–Middle Pleistocene Transition, a pivotal phase in Quaternary climatic history. This transition, marked by the shift from a 41,000-year obliquity-driven climatic cycle to a 100,000-year precession-forced cyclicity, had profound effects on the Calabrian carnivorous mammal communities. Notably, the once diverse carnivore guild began to decline across Europe during this period, with their last documented occurrences coinciding with those found within the Vallparadís Section (e.g., Megantereon or Xenocyon). Concurrently, this period witnessed the initial dispersals of African carnivorans into the European landscape (e.g., steppe lions), marking a significant shift in the composition and dynamics of the region’s carnivorous fauna. Full article

The contribution of sediment transport and accumulation to soil formation was investigated in an area characterized by continental sedimentary activity since the Late Pleistocene. The area was the north-eastern portion of the large Quaternary graben represented by the Campania Plain, which is rimmed to the north–east–south by the Mesozoic carbonate Apennine nappes. The plain was filled mainly by products generated by eruptions from the Phlegrean Fields, which were also distributed on the slopes bordering the plain and remobilized toward the adjacent surfaces. Five sites were selected in the area in question. They were studied using morphological features and pertinent characteristics of the mineral soil fraction >2.0 mm, such as their volume and lithological description. Soils were compared to selected lithostratigraphic sequences characterizing the studied area, which were collected from literature and reinterpreted in pedological keys. The results showed that soils derived from the emplacement of Phlegrean primary volcanic materials, such as Campania Ignimbrite (~39–40 ky B.P.) and Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (~15 ky B.P.), with the related weathering products, and from volcanic materials reworked and transported by alluvial/colluvial episodes. The latter formed contrasting soil horizons which, differing in both rock fragment content and lithological composition, testified to the presence of lithological discontinuities. The formation of the horizons in question interrupted the genetic sequence derived from the in situ alteration of the volcanic substrata, suggesting that processes of transport and redistribution of sediments from the adjacent mountain slopes contributed to soil formation. The comparison of the pedostratigraphies with the lithostratigraphic sequences indicated a strong relation between geomorphic and pedogenetic events. Full article

This commentary underscores the importance of the recent discovery of the oldest in situ Holocene mangrove sediments found to date in the Caribbean region. It also emphasizes the implications of this finding for understanding postglacial sea level rise and the subsequent recolonization of current Caribbean coasts by mangrove communities. These communities likely survived the last glaciation in small microrefugia located beyond the present continental shelf, from where they expanded to form the present-day mangrove biogeographical patterns. Full article

The Early Pleistocene sites of Orce in southeastern Spain, including Fuente Nueva-3 (FN3), Barranco León (BL) and Venta Micena (VM), provide important insights into the earliest hominin populations and Late Villafranchian large mammal communities. Dated to approximately 1.4 million years ago, FN3 and BL preserve abundant Oldowan tools, cut marks and a human primary tooth, indicating hominin activity. VM, approximately 1.6 million years old, is an outstanding site because it preserves an exceptionally rich assemblage of large mammals and predates the presence of hominins, providing a context for pre-human conditions in the region. Research suggests that both hominins and giant hyenas were essential to the accumulation of skeletal remains at FN3 and BL, with secondary access to meat resources exploited by saber-toothed felids. This aim of this study aims to correlate the relative abundance of large herbivores at these sites with their estimates of Carrying Capacity (CC) and Total Available Biomass (TAB) using the PSEco model, which incorporates survival and mortality profiles to estimate these parameters in paleoecosystems. Our results show: (i) similarities between quarries VM3 and VM4 and (ii) similarities of these quarries with BL-D (level D), suggesting a similar formation process; (iii) that the role of humans would be secondary in BL-D and FN3-LAL (Lower Archaeological Level), although with a greater human influence in FN3-LAL due to the greater presence of horses and small species; and (iv) that FN3-UAL (Upper Archaeological Level) shows similarities with the expected CC values for FN3/BL, consistent with a natural trap of quicksand scenario, where the large mammal species were trapped according to their abundance and body mass, as there is a greater presence of rhinos and mammoths due to the greater weight per unit area exerted by their legs. Given the usefulness of this approach, we propose to apply it first to sites that have been proposed to function as natural traps. Full article

This review, through the collection and comparative analysis of the most recent literature, aims to analyze the new trends in archaeometric analysis and some selected laboratory techniques aimed at determining the provenance, the physical–chemical characteristics, and the state of decay of archaeological finds of different types (ancient manuscripts, paintings, frescoes, and ceramics). In particular, the methodologies and analytical techniques relating to Raman spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, laser ablation, IR spectroscopy, LIBS, and Thz spectroscopy were compared and tabulated, with the aim of determining the appropriateness of each technique applied to various archaeological items. This will provide guidelines for the right conservation and restoration strategies. The work was also based on the construction of comparative tables of the consulted scientific literature and on the analysis of the research trends by using the Google Trends app. Full article

The loess–paleosol profile of Máza brickyard in SW Hungary was investigated through multivariate analyses of malacofauna and sedimentological analyses. The aim was to reconstruct the complex developmental history of both sediment and malacofauna. Three age–depth models were calculated, and the best-fit model, the OxCal P-sequence, was chosen for further analysis. The profile overlays the MIS3 and MIS2, beginning at approximately 45,000–50,000 cal BP and ending at the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary. The accumulation rates were two periods of intensive accumulation, equal to those observed in the Bácska Loess Plateau in Hungary, and two periods of decreased accumulation. Between ~38,000 and 31,000 cal BP, a decreased accumulation period was observed in Máza and other profiles from the Bácska Loess Plateau, indicating a common weak accumulation period at the end of MIS3. Correspondence and cluster analyses provided a higher-resolution paleoecological reconstruction, revealing a more detailed picture of the evolution of the studied section. The presence of thermophilous gastropod species with a high contribution to the correspondence analysis was significant in the sections. Although Granaria frumentum, Helicopsis striata, Chondrula tridens, and Pupilla triplicata were not significant species in the Máza malacofauna as a whole, their presence was associated with warming periods and the emergence of open vegetation. Full article

In the northern part of the Niğde (Central Anatolian) Quaternary Bor Basin, stratigraphic sections P1 and P2 were sampled, reaching depths of 11 m and 25 m. The samples were analyzed with thin-section, XRD, and chemical analyses (ICP-MS) to determine their chemical and mineralogical properties. In the study area, partially lithified volcano-sedimentary rocks comprised paleosol, calcrete, gravel, sand, silt, mud, clay, and volcanoclastics such as pumice fall-out. Grain size analyses from the Zengen (P1) and Altunhisar (P2) regions showed very poor sorting and strong positive skewness. The Zengen-area (P1) samples contained rock fragments, calcite, quartz, opal-CT, feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite, and clay minerals such as smectite, chlorite, illite, palygorskite, and sepiolite. In calcrete zones, however, the amounts of CaO increased, whereas significant decreases in the amounts of SiO₂ were observed. Therefore, a negative correlation between SiO₂ and CaO was observed. The vertical distributions and behaviors of trace elements in the Zengen-area profile showed variation with the different levels of the P1 section. It is thought that in the Bor Plain, after 17,000 years ago, no lacustrine phase reached a level above the periglacial lake level in the region, reaching this level with the melting of the ice sheets in the area. During the late glacial period, shallow freshwater lacustrine phases and paleosols were identified from 12,500 to 11,000 yr BP in the basin. Full article

Recent technological advancements in spectral imaging core-scanning techniques have proved to be a promising tool to study lake sediments at extremely high resolution. We used this novel analytical approach to scan core AU3 of the Pleistocene Auel maar, Western Germany. The resulting ultra-high-resolution RABD₆₇₀ spectral index, a proxy for the lake’s primary production, shows an almost complete succession of Greenland Interstadials of the NGRIP ice core chronology back to around 60,000 years. Using the ELSA-20 chronology and its anchor points to the NGRIP record as a stratigraphic basis, we were able to compare and fine-tune prominent climate signals occurring in both regions. This in-depth correlation yields strong evidence that the climates of Greenland and Central Europe were not only strongly coupled on timescales of stadials and interstadials but even on multidecadal scales, showing prominent climate cycles between 20 and 125 years. As climate changes in these regions were ultimately driven by variations in the North Atlantic meridional heat transport, their strong coupling becomes most apparent during cold and arid intervals. In contrast, longer-lasting warmer and more humid phases caused the activation of various regional feedback mechanisms (e.g., soil formation, forest growth), resulting in more complex patterns in the proxy records. Full article