Next Article in Journal
Effectiveness of Vitamin D on Neurological and Mental Disorders
Previous Article in Journal
Differential Inflammatory Cytokine Elaboration in Serum from Brick Kiln Workers in Bhaktapur, Nepal
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Diseases
Volume 12
Issue 6
10.3390/diseases12060130
diseases-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Taste and Smell Alterations (TSAs) in Cancer Patients

by
Davide Rosati
1,
Pierluigi Mastino
1,
Martina Romeo
1,
Giulia de Soccio
1,
Daniele Pentangelo
1,
Carla Petrella
2,
Christian Barbato
2,* and
Antonio Minni
1,3,*
1
Division of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ospedale San Camillo de Lellis, ASL Rieti-Sapienza University, Viale Kennedy, 02100 Rieti, Italy
2
Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC), National Research Council (CNR), Sapienza University of Rome, Policlinico Umberto I, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161 Roma, Italy
3
Department of Sense Organs DOS, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161 Roma, Italy
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diseases 2024, 12(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases12060130
Submission received: 9 May 2024 / Revised: 30 May 2024 / Accepted: 19 June 2024 / Published: 19 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Topic Pathogenetic, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Perspectives in Head and Neck Cancer)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Recently, smell and taste disorders have seen renewed interest, as these symptoms are frequent complications of SARS-CoV-2 infection, since approximately 60% of patients affected by COVID-19 have shown olfactory and gustatory alterations. Otolaryngology pays attention to taste and smell abnormalities (TSAs), especially when associated with oncology. TSAs are common symptoms in people affected by cancer, yet they are ignored and underestimated. The clinical outcome of TSAs in cancer evidences the importance of identifying them with chemotherapy or radiotherapy in general, and they are associated with many types of cancer. We recognize the findings of the literature on TSAs in cancer, evaluating how it is important to consider and identify these disorders concerning reduced food enjoyment or inappropriate nutrient intake, and modulating the nutritional status, quality of life, and impact of therapy. This review aims to critically evaluate and recognize the assessment and clinical perspectives of taste and smell disorders in a cancer population.

1. Introduction

The human chemical senses of taste and smell are essential to life. Smell is a powerful sense. not only for detecting and identifying odors but also for protecting us from environmental events, the recognition of the edibility of food, and, in a special way, for social interaction and emotional life, by modulating our mood, thoughts, behavior, and cognition. It is also essential for defining taste, identifying volatile aroma molecules, and completing the taste sensation. Smell disorders range from hyposmia, a reduced sense of smell, to anosmia, including incidental changes in the normal sense of smell, referred to as parosmia [1]. Recently, new interest was directed to taste and smell disorders, as these symptoms are frequent complications of SARS-CoV-2 infection; approximately 60% of COVID-19 patients experienced olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions [2]. The literature describes five basic tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami [3]. The complete lack of taste is ageusia, while the decreased sensitivity to taste is called hypogeusia. An excessive sensitivity to taste is hypergeusia, while phantageusia is the perception of an unpleasant taste without an appropriate gustatory stimulus. The sense of taste begins with the activation of taste receptor cells. Taste receptor cells are epithelial cells capable of receiving and retransmitting gustatory, olfactory, and trigeminal nervous stimuli [4]. Odor coding occurs via olfactory circuits consisting of approximately 400 peripheral olfactory receptors, approximately 107 olfactory sensory neurons, and central structures, via the ortho-nasal and the retro-nasal route. Four categories of smell disorders are classified: anosmia (absence of smell perception), hyposmia (reduced smell perception), parosmia (impairment of a commonly detected smell), and phantosmia (perception of odors in their absence) [1,5,6,7]. Taste and smell abnormalities (TSAs) are frequently reported in solid and hematological tumors [8]. TSA is a common symptom in cancer patients, yet it is often ignored and underestimated. The reported prevalence ranges from 20% to 86% for taste alterations [9] and 5% to 60% for smell alterations [10]. TSAs may also contribute to increased risk of malnutrition, mood modifications, and reduced social interaction and quality of life [11]. In addition, they may be a factor in anorexia-cachexia cancer syndrome [12], by significantly influencing nutritional status [13]. The clinical consequences of TSA in cancer highlight the importance of identifying and managing these symptoms, as reflected in the literature on TSA related to chemotherapy (CT) or radiotherapy (RT), especially of the head and neck [14,15]. According to these studies, patients undergoing head and neck radiation therapy have a prevalence of TSA of 50–70%, but estimates vary widely among patients undergoing chemotherapy (15–70%). Indeed, there is consensus on the TSA underestimation in cancer [16]. It is important to consider and identify TSA, as it can lead to a reduction in nutrition and an unbalanced intake of nutrients, with a profound impact on nutritional status, quality of life, and therapeutic efficacy. This review aims to critically evaluate and recognize the assessment, prevalence, and clinical perspectives of taste and smell disorders in a cancer population.

2. Materials and Methods

The search was performed in November 2023 in PubMed, Web of Science and Embase. The search terms used are the following: “olfactory nerve” AND “chemotherapy”, “loss of smell” AND “chemotherapy”,“loss of smell” AND “cancer”,“loss of smell” AND “head and neck cancer”,“taste smell disorders” AND “head and neck cancer”, “taste smell disorders” AND “cancer”, “taste smell disorders” AND “chemotherapy”, “taste smell disorders” AND “radiotherapy”, “anosmia” AND “chemotherapy”, “anosmia” AND “cancer”. We critically evaluate research published in the last 10 years (from 2013 to 2023) which measured taste and smell function and assessed the status of appetite and dietary intake. We included studies with objective measures of taste and smell function, rather than subjective or self-reported changes in taste and smell. The rationale for this selection was based on the observation that patients often do not distinguish between taste and smell or confuse sensory constructs with hedonic constructs, such as appetite or enjoyment of food [17]. Articles were included if they were available in full text and the English language. Non-cancer diagnosis studies and pediatric studies were excluded. We started from 672 articles that could be included. After a rapid evaluation of contents, we selected 126 articles that could satisfy the parameters; we selected reviews, and we excluded articles published before 2013; in the end, we found 33 articles that matched all the inclusion criteria. This review tried to critically discover a correlation between the current trajectory of an oncological patient and taste and smell disorders, providing a thorough evaluation of the literature about the prevalence and clinical consequences of these disorders. The aim was to examine the current literature, focusing on the last 10 years, to understand if there are recent recommendations or new routes for developing prevention strategies for taste and smell alterations in oncological patients.

3. Results

3.1. Assessment of TSAs in Cancer

When analyzing changes in taste and smell, we evaluate detection, which is the awareness of a sensation of taste or smell, and recognition, which indicates that a taste or smell can be recognized and named [18]. Examining the literature, objective taste assessment methods used were electrogustometry, liquid tastants, and filter paper discs/strips, though, as underlined by Epstein [19], each method has some limitations. Regarding smell, the objective methods to assess it were “Sniffin sticks”, inhalation of solutions, and the “University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test” (UPSIT), but even in this case, there is no certainty as to which objective assessment method can be recommended [20]. An estimate of the true prevalence of taste and smell disorders is complex, given variations in methodology and confounding factors such as the use of antiemetic and analgesic drugs and the frequent use of subjective and objective detection methods. Moreover, as underlined by various authors [21,22], TSAs are under-recognized by medical oncologists in one-third of cases, or under-contemplated, with these symptoms considered untreatable. On the other hand, patients may be aware of these problems but might be unable to articulate their taste and smell alterations. All these situations may exacerbate the under-recognition of TSAs. In any case, even if the gustatory and olfactory sensory pathways are anatomically separate, they are closely connected in relation to the processing of the perception of food, suggesting that the two senses should be evaluated together [23]. In addition, the optimal performance of the olfactory function is between 20 and 60 years old [24] (Table 1).

3.2. Prevalence of TSAs in Cancer

Several studies suggest that the main reasons causing the deterioration of smell are linked to factors associated with age, diabetes, hypertension, or repeated infections of the olfactory epithelium [50,51]. On the other hand, with age, the loss of taste is much less pronounced the loss of than smell [52]. Furthermore, some drugs, such as antihypertensives, diuretics, or antidepressants, could cause abnormalities in the sensation of taste and smell, in addition to xerostomia. Other predisposing conditions are oral infections, smoking, alcohol abuse, and chronic rhinosinusitis [53]. An interesting study by Dhuibhir et al. shows a high prevalence of taste and smell alterations in newly diagnosed cancer patients before treatment [38]. Taste and smell alterations are very disabling side effects in oncologic patients, impacting the daily lives of cancer patients [39,54,55]. Other studies demonstrate the fact that TSAs during chemotherapy have a strong impact on the daily life of patients; these studies hypothesize that these patients have a reduced quality of life, suffer weight loss and nutritional deficiencies, and obtain unfavorable therapeutic outcomes [33,42,43,44,56,57,58]. In the literature, focusing on oncological patients who underwent chemotherapy, the incidence of smell alterations has been reported to be between 16% and 49%, while taste alterations have been reported to be between 20% and 70% [31,48]. This difference could be explained by the difference in the turnover rate of smell and taste receptors (mean 30 days versus 10 days) or by the hypothesis that the olfactory epithelium is less susceptible to damage. For many cancer patients, CT is the primary form of treatment, and its short- and long-term effect on chemosensory alterations is less understood. Radiotherapy is a well-known cause of chemosensory dysfunction, as it can lead to direct damage of taste receptors, synaptic uncoupling, and other neurological damage [59,60]. RT (especially in head and neck cancer) can also cause hypo-salivation and dry mouth, resulting in reduced delivery of chemical stimulants to receptors, resulting in a prevalence of 50% of smell and 70% of taste alterations [61,62]. In the literature, taste alterations in cancer patients undergoing RT are quite well described, suggesting that the minimum radiation dose able to cause taste alterations is 15–30 gray [63,64], while there is no clear consensus on whether smell alterations occur during RT. No significant differences have been described between the use of conventional and hyper-fractioned RT [65], although parotid-sparing IMRT has been related to an improved food intake after treatment [66]. On the other hand, in the literature, there are no studies aimed at characterizing the severity of TSAs during RT. Exploring the area of hormone therapy and immunotherapy makes it possible to extrapolate data about their impact on TSAs, even if some previous studies suggest the association between impaired smell and congenital or post-menopausal hypogonadism [67,68].

3.3. Prevalence of TSAs in Head and Neck Cancer

A specific focus must be placed on head and neck cancer (HNC), in which the primary tumor and the consequent treatments often contribute together to affect nasal, oral, and pharyngeal functions that impact oral intake [34,40,45,69]. Unlike other types of cancer, sensory alterations in HNC patients are caused by the primary tumor and treatments, although the mechanisms are not known. In irradiated patients, after evaluation with subjective and objective methods, taste alterations were observed in 96% and 79% [69]. In HNC, dysgeusia may begin with mucosal damage due to cytotoxicity and neurotoxicity resulting from RT and drug administration. CT may have cytotoxic effects on taste and smell through systemic effects, in addition to driving a reduced salivary secretion of the gingival crevice [36,70]. In HNC patients, surgery in the oral cavity can even lead to taste alterations through the surgical damage of chemosensory nerves [71]. An interesting review [72] indicates that olfactory perception of foods among head-and-neck-cancer patients is more frequent than changes in taste perception, as are changes in texture, temperature, and other oral sensations, such as hotness and cold. In these patients, smell is less affected by RT than taste, and can recover within 6 to 9 months after RT [73]. Another aspect of TSA is related to paraneoplastic syndrome, which includes tumor-induced alterations in the production of hormones, growth factors, and antigen–antibody complexes. Olfactory dysfunction is part of the paraneoplastic syndrome of malignant breast and lung neoplasms [30,46,47,74,75]. It may be due to HNC-related production of antibodies against neural epitopes, such as the retinopathy-associated anti-recoverin antibody, and inhalation of tumor-related toxicants produced in the airways [76,77]. Another interesting recent study [25] highlights the fact that olfactory disorders can be detected with tests in more than 90% of patients treated with head and neck cancer, even if self-reported olfactory perception was normal. Moreover, approximately 20% of these patients have a total loss of smell. Furthermore, the researchers propose to test the hypothesis of considering olfactory tests as a screening method to detect HNC early in patients with risk factors such as smoking, alcoholism, age, and gender.

4. Discussion

The etiology of TSAs, probably due to the heterogeneity of studies on tumor populations and the multifactorial nature of taste and smell abnormalities, has not yet been clarified. The hypothesis that seeks to explain the biological basis of drug-induced taste disorders highlights the following: the probable interaction with the taste receptors located on the apical side of the tongue; genetic differences that influence taste perception; the taste sensations caused by injectable drugs; and drug interactions caused by the combined use of multiple drugs. The most accredited theory is based on cytotoxic damage to the rapidly dividing cells such as olfactory- and gustatory-receptor and mucosal cells [19,78,79,80] as well as the alteration of saliva and mucus production; it can affect taste through the development of oral mucositis, dry mouth, and dental caries. Cytotoxic drugs can also exhibit independent effects on taste and smell by inducing a specific odor or even affecting the central or peripheral nervous system [81]. The chemotherapeutic agents that act most on TSA are docetaxel, carboplatin, anthracycline, paclitaxel, and vinorelbine. However, as reported in the literature, the effect of different chemotherapy treatments on the severity of specific taste and smell alterations is not yet known, and wide gaps in the research regarding TSAs in different patient populations are present [26]. Another study described the fact that changes in smell threshold after CT were significantly more intense with 5-fluorouracil and capecitabine if compared to cisplatin and carboplatin [82]. However, TSAs are sometimes present even before the beginning of anticancer treatments, suggesting other mechanisms are involved. For example, some authors have highlighted factors that modify the increase in the inflammatory state, changes in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, modification of the oral microbiota, mucositis, zinc depletion, and changes in the quantity and composition of saliva, which are important to evaluate [83]. To date, it has been shown that taste and smell alterations are often largely transient, and usually recover within the first 3–6 months after the end of chemotherapy [84,85,86]. A recent review of chemotherapy drugs and taste/smell alterations [87] affirmed that Docetaxel, Paclitaxel, Nab-Paclitaxel, Capecitabine, Cyclophosphamide, Epirubicin, Anthracyclines and 5-FU analogs are the drugs most frequently associated with taste and smell disorders. Moreover, as demonstrated by Gamper et al. [88], they underlined the fact that dysgeusia and dysosmia were strictly associated with breast, uterus, and colorectal cancer. Other evidence found in the literature is represented by the higher incidence of salty and sour taste alteration during cancer treatments [41,89] and the number of chemotherapy cycles, gender, metastases, and the primary tumor’s location in the uterus, testicles or head and neck, as important risk factors for taste and smell disorders [32]. Other studies underlined the significant worst outcome in terms of recovery of smell and taste in patients who underwent trastuzumab treatment for breast cancer [35] or the significative prevalence of reduced taste and smell of food in prostate cancer treatment receiving hormone therapy and/or chemotherapy, leading to reduced appetite and ≥10% weight loss [27]. Many studies have attempted to systematize the ways of supporting, preventing, and treating chemosensory alterations in cancer patients [90], without the possibility of generalizing a model. Precision medicine could be an opportunity to respond to this clinical problem. However, the current literature contains few univocal recommendations because of the variability of perception of these disorders in cancer patients, the wide heterogeneity of the population involved, the frequent underestimation of the problem among healthcare workers, and the difficulty of standardizing the diagnostic and preventive modalities in cancer care. Currently, taste and smell alterations can be assessed through clinical methods (objective) or self-reported methods (subjective). Therefore, there is also a chronic bias of problematic standardization of results due to the combination of different measurement methods and experimental designs. Multiple objective measures were used to assess taste and smell perception [91] leading to a mix of positive and negative results, often in contradiction with each other [92,93,94]. Interestingly, few patients spontaneously report symptoms in taste and smell, and are often overlooked by oncologists [95]. All these observations suggest that the lack of generalizability of selected interventions remains the greatest limitation [96]. All these studies suggest the development of standardized methods to ensure that TSAs associated with sensory changes are quantitative and reliable for use by clinicians and researchers. Lastly, a recent study evidenced the adverse drug reactions (ADRs) using the FDA Adverse Events Reporting System (FAERS) focused on olfactory and gustatory dysfunction [97]. It analyzed the FAERS database from 2011 to 2021, searching for “anosmia, hyposmia, olfactory test abnormal, olfactory nerve disorder, hallucination olfactory, parosmia, ageusia, hypogeusia, dysgeusia, and taste disorder” reported in ADRs related to OGD. Interestingly, anticancer and immunomodulating drugs were frequently associated with general gustatory dysfunction, accounting for 36% of the reports and 22.9% for smell dysfunction, suggesting that these molecules are the most frequently reported for TSA adverse drug reactions.

5. Conclusions

Alterations in taste and smell can contribute to malnutrition, representing an important predictor of morbidity and mortality, and evaluating a response to treatment toxicity in cancer [28,45]. A standardized and systematic study of taste and smell behavior in cancer patients before, during, and after treatments seems very important for its practical implications on oncological outcomes [46]. A clearer understanding of the effect of taste and smell alterations on elements of eating behavior can support the design and testing of clinical strategies aimed at modulating unwanted effects on chemosensory function caused by cancer treatment [40,47]. Few studies focused on taste and smell disorders in cancer patients, dividing the population into treatment-naive patients, those undergoing RT, CT, RT + CT, hormone therapy, and immunotherapy, and those who have completed treatment and have long survival [29,34,37,49]. Moreover, we noticed a wide heterogeneity of the evaluation tools used and the fact that no gold-standard assessment tool has been identified; this does not allow for an accurate generalizability of the results. Therefore, it seems very difficult to standardize the evaluation, and new research is needed to explore, standardize, and try to manage the oncological patient’s overall experience of taste-and-smell treatment [40,46,47]. In conclusion, this scoping review has identified gaps in the current literature and topics for future research in this field. Observational studies were identified for the following: to determine “risk factors” for TSAs (i.e., type of cancer, age, BMI, and performance status); to determine the precise etiology of TSA disturbance; to determine the etiology of different subtypes and gradation of TSAs (i.e., ageusia and dysgeusia and anosmia and hyposmia); to focus on patient care, to understand the needs and priorities for management and therapy; and for the development and validation of a specific taste-and-smell assessment tool for this group of patients.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.R. and C.B.; methodology, C.P., D.R., P.M., M.R., G.d.S. and D.P.; investigation, D.R.; data curation, D.R.; writing—original draft preparation, D.R.; writing—review and editing, C.B.; supervision, A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Fatuzzo, I.; Niccolini, G.F.; Zoccali, F.; Cavalcanti, L.; Bellizzi, M.G.; Riccardi, G.; de Vincentiis, M.; Fiore, M.; Petrella, C.; Minni, A.; et al. Neurons, Nose, and neurodegenerative diseases: Olfactory Function and Cognitive Impairment. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 2117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Gary, J.B.; Gallagher, L.; Joseph, P.V.; Reed, D.; Gudis, D.A.; Overdevest, J.B. Qualitative Olfactory Dysfunction and COVID-19: An Evidence-Based Review with Recommendations for the Clinician. Am. J. Rhinol. Allergy 2023, 37, 95–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Witt, M. Anatomy and development of the human taste system. Handb. Clin. Neurol. 2019, 164, 147–171. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  4. Corremans, M.; Mortelmans, D.; Geurden, B.; Luyten, S.; Bekkering, G. Prevalence and incidence of chemotherapy-induced taste alterations in adult cancer patients: A systematic review protocol. JBI Évid. Synth. 2022, 20, 1338–1343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Mainland, J.D.; Barlow, L.A.; Munger, S.D.; Millar, S.E.; Vergara, M.N.; Jiang, P.; Schwob, J.E.; Goldstein, B.J.; Boye, S.E.; Martens, J.R.; et al. Identifying Treatments for Taste and Smell Disorders: Gaps and Opportunities. Chem. Senses 2020, 45, 493–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Riccardi, G.; Niccolini, G.F.; Bellizzi, M.G.; Fiore, M.; Minni, A.; Barbato, C. Post-COVID-19 Anosmia and Therapies: Stay Tuned for New Drugs to Sniff Out. Diseases 2023, 11, 79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Bianco, M.R.; Ralli, M.; Minni, A.; Greco, A.; De Vincentiis, M.; Allegra, E. Evaluation of olfactory dysfunction persistence after COVID-19: A prospective study. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2022, 26, 1042–1048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. van Oort, S.; Kramer, E.; de Groot, J.-W.; Visser, O. Taste alterations and cancer treatment. Curr. Opin. Support. Palliat. Care 2018, 12, 162–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Spotten, L.E.; Corish, C.A.; Lorton, C.M.; Dhuibhir, P.M.U.; O’donoghue, N.C.; O’connor, B.; Walsh, T.D. Subjective and objective taste and smell changes in cancer. Ann. Oncol. 2017, 28, 969–984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Gamper, E.-M.; Zabernigg, A.; Wintner, L.M.; Giesinger, J.M.; Oberguggenberger, A.; Kemmler, G.; Sperner-Unterweger, B.; Holzner, B. Coming to your senses: Detecting taste and smell alterations in chemotherapy patients. A systematic review. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 2012, 44, 880–895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Hong, J.H.; Omur-Ozbek, P.; Stanek, B.T.; Dietrich, A.M.; E Duncan, S.; Lee, Y.W.; Lesser, G. Taste and odor abnormalities in cancer patients. J. Support Oncol. 2009, 7, 58–65. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  12. Yavuzsen, T.; Walsh, D.; Davis, M.P.; Kirkova, J.; Jin, T.; LeGrand, S.; Lagman, R.; Bicanovsky, L.; Estfan, B.; Cheema, B.; et al. Components of the anorexia–cachexia syndrome: Gastrointestinal symptom correlates of cancer anorexia. Support. Care Cancer 2009, 17, 1531–1541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Nicolini, A.; Ferrari, P.; Masoni, M.C.; Fini, M.; Pagani, S.; Giampietro, O.; Carpi, A. Malnutrition, anorexia and cachexia in cancer patients: A mini-review on pathogenesis and treatment. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2013, 67, 807–817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. de Graeff, A.; de Leeuw, J.R.; Ros, W.J.; Hordijk, G.J.; Blijham, G.H.; Winnubst, J.A. Long-term quality of life of patients with head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope 2000, 110, 98–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Janssens, G.O.; Langendijk, J.A.; Terhaard, C.H.; Doornaert, P.A.; Ende, P.V.D.; de Jong, M.A.; Takes, R.P.; Span, P.N.; Kaanders, J.H. Quality-of-life after radiotherapy for advanced laryngeal cancer: Results of a phase III trial of the Dutch Head and Neck Society. Radiother. Oncol. 2016, 119, 213–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Heckel, M.; Stiel, S.; Ostgathe, C. Smell and taste in palliative care: A systematic analysis of literature. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2015, 272, 279–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Ijpma, I.; Renken, R.J.; Gietema, J.A.; Slart, R.H.; Mensink, M.G.; Lefrandt, J.D.; Ter Horst, G.J.; Reyners, A.K. Taste and smell function in testicular cancer survivors treated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy in relation to dietary intake, food preference, and body composition. Appetite 2016, 105, 392–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Epstein, J.B.; Barasch, A. Taste disorders in cancer patients: Pathogenesis, and approach to assessment and management. Oral Oncol. 2010, 46, 77–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Epstein, J.B.; Smutzer, G.; Doty, R.L. Understanding the impact of taste changes in oncology care. Support. Care Cancer 2016, 24, 1917–1931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Knaapila, A.; Tuorila, H.; Kyvik, K.O.; Wright, M.J.; Keskitalo, K.; Hansen, J.; Kaprio, J.; Perola, M.; Silventoinen, K. Self-ratings of olfactory function reflect odor annoyance rather than olfactory acuity. Laryngoscope 2008, 118, 2212–2217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Newell, S.; Sanson-Fisher, R.W.; Girgis, A.; Bonaventura, A. How well do medical oncologists’ perceptions reflect their patients’ reported physical and psychosocial problems? Data from a survey of five oncologists. Cancer 1998, 83, 1640–1651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Zabernigg, A.; Gamper, E.M.; Giesinger, J.M.; Rumpold, G.; Kemmler, G.; Gattringer, K.; Sperner-Unterweger, B.; Holzner, B. Taste alterations in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy: A neglected side effect? Oncologist 2010, 15, 913–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Wrobel, B.B.; Leopold, D.A. Clinical assessment of patients with smell and taste disorders. Otolaryngol. Clin. N. Am. 2004, 37, 1127–1142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Sorokowska, A.; Schriever, V.A.; Gudziol, V.; Hummel, C.; Hähner, A.; Iannilli, E.; Sinding, C.; Aziz, M.; Seo, H.S.; Negoias, S.; et al. Changes of olfactory abilities in relation to age: Odor identification in more than 1400 people aged 4 to 80 years. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2015, 272, 1937–1944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Barbosa da Silva, J.L.; Anzolin, L.K.; Nicacio, S.P.; Doty, R.L.; Pinna, F.R.; Voegels, R.L.; Fornazieri, M.A. High prevalence of olfactory dysfunction detected in treatment-naive patients with head and neck cancer. Acta Otolaryngol. 2023, 143, 201–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Amézaga, J.; Alfaro, B.; Ríos, Y.; Larraioz, A.; Ugartemendia, G.; Urruticoechea, A.; Tueros, I. Assessing taste and smell alterations in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy according to treatment. Support. Care Cancer 2018, 26, 4077–4086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Alonzi, S.; Hoerger, M.; Perry, L.M.; Chow, L.D.; Manogue, C.; Cotogno, P.; Ernst, E.M.; Ledet, E.M.; Sartor, O. Changes in taste and smell of food during prostate cancer treatment. Support. Care Cancer 2021, 29, 2807–2809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Campagna, S.; Gonella, S.; Sperlinga, R.; Giuliano, P.L.; Marchese, R.; Pedersini, R.; Berchialla, P.; Dimonte, V. Prevalence, Severity, and Self-Reported Characteristics of Taste Alterations in Patients Receiving Chemotherapy. Oncol. Nurs. Forum 2018, 45, 342–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Rosenzweig, S.J.; Lazarev, S.; Hasan, S.; Fox, J.; Choi, J.I.; Simone, C.B., 2nd; Wolden, S.L. Phantosmia Among Pediatric, Adolescent, and Young Adult Patients Receiving Proton Beam Therapy. Adv. Radiat. Oncol. 2021, 7, 100881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Denda, Y.; Niikura, N.; Satoh-Kuriwada, S.; Yokoyama, K.; Terao, M.; Morioka, T.; Tsuda, B.; Okamura, T.; Ota, Y.; Tokuda, Y.; et al. Taste alterations in patients with breast cancer following chemotherapy: A cohort study. Breast Cancer 2020, 27, 954–962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Kaizu, M.; Komatsu, H.; Yamauchi, H.; Yamauchi, T.; Sumitani, M.; Doorenbos, A.Z. Characteristics of taste alterations in people receiving taxane-based chemotherapy and their association with appetite, weight, and quality of life. Support. Care Cancer 2021, 29, 5103–5114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Malta, C.E.N.; Martins, J.O.d.L.; Carlos, A.C.A.M.; Freitas, M.O.; Magalhães, I.A.; de Vasconcelos, H.C.A.; Silva-Fernandes, I.J.D.L.; Silva, P.G.D.B. Risk factors for dysgeusia during chemotherapy for solid tumors: A retrospective cross-sectional study. Support. Care Cancer 2022, 30, 313–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Sicchieri, J.M.F.; Peria, F.M.; Sartorelli, D.S.; Diez-Garcia, R.W. Recognition of taste in patients during antineoplastic therapy with platinum drugs. Nutrition 2019, 67–68, 110520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Lilja, M.; Markkanen-Leppänen, M.; Viitasalo, S.; Saarilahti, K.; Lindford, A.; Lassus, P.; Mäkitie, A. Olfactory and gustatory functions after free flap reconstruction and radiotherapy for oral and pharyngeal cancer: A prospective follow-up study. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2018, 275, 959–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. de Vries, Y.C.; Boesveldt, S.; Kelfkens, C.S.; Posthuma, E.E.; Berg, M.M.G.A.V.D.; de Kruif, J.T.C.M.; Haringhuizen, A.; Sommeijer, D.W.; Buist, N.; Grosfeld, S.; et al. Taste and smell perception and quality of life during and after systemic therapy for breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 2018, 170, 27–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Epstein, J.B.; Villines, D.; Epstein, G.L.; Smutzer, G. Oral examination findings, taste and smell testing during and following head and neck cancer therapy. Support. Care Cancer 2020, 28, 4305–4311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. de Vries, Y.; Boesveldt, S.; Kampman, E.; de Graaf, C.; Winkels, R.; van Laarhoven, H. Low reported taste function is associated with low preference for high protein products in advanced oesophagogastric cancer patients undergoing palliative chemotherapy. Clin. Nutr. 2019, 38, 472–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Dhuibhir, P.U.; Barrett, M.; O’donoghue, N.; Gillham, C.; El Beltagi, N.; Walsh, D. Self-reported and objective taste and smell evaluation in treatment-naive solid tumour patients. Support. Care Cancer 2020, 28, 2389–2396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. McGettigan, N.; Dhuibhir, P.U.; Barrett, M.; Sui, J.; Balding, L.; Higgins, S.; O’leary, N.; Kennedy, A.; Walsh, D. Subjective and Objective Assessment of Taste and Smell Sensation in Advanced Cancer. Am. J. Hosp. Palliat. Care 2019, 36, 688–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Alvarez-Camacho, M.; Gonella, S.; Ghosh, S.; Kubrak, C.; Scrimger, R.A.; Chu, K.P.; Wismer, W.V. The impact of taste and smell alterations on quality of life in head and neck cancer patients. Qual. Life Res. 2016, 25, 1495–1504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Drareni, K.; Dougkas, A.; Giboreau, A.; Laville, M.; Souquet, P.; Nazare, J.; Fournel, P.; Bensafi, M. Loss of smell in lung cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy: Prevalence and relationship with food habit changes. Lung Cancer 2023, 177, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Jeong An, H.; Kang, S.J. The Relationship Between Taste and Smell Alterations and Quality of Life Among Women with Breast Cancer Receiving Chemotherapy. Oncol. Nurs. Forum. 2023, 50, 499–508. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  43. Hannon, M.; Shaw, A.; Connolly, M.; Davies, A. Taste disturbance in patients with advanced cancer: A scoping review of clinical features and complications. Support. Care Cancer 2023, 31, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Otani, H.; Amano, K.; Morita, T.; Miura, T.; Mori, N.; Tatara, R.; Kessoku, T.; Matsuda, Y.; Tagami, K.; Mori, M.; et al. Impact of taste/smell disturbances on dietary intakes and cachexia-related quality of life in patients with advanced cancer. Support. Care Cancer 2023, 31, 141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Riva, G.; Sensini, M.; Corvino, A.; Pecorari, G.; Garzaro, M. Smell and Taste Impairment After Total Laryngectomy. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 2017, 126, 548–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. McGreevy, J.; Orrevall, Y.; Belqaid, K.; Wismer, W.; Tishelman, C.; Bernhardson, B.-M. Characteristics of taste and smell alterations reported by patients after starting treatment for lung cancer. Support. Care Cancer 2014, 22, 2635–2644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Belqaid, K.; Tishelman, C.; McGreevy, J.; Månsson-Brahme, E.; Orrevall, Y.; Wismer, W.; Bernhardson, B.-M. A longitudinal study of changing characteristics of self-reported taste and smell alterations in patients treated for lung cancer. Eur. J. Oncol. Nurs. 2016, 21, 232–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Spotten, L.; Corish, C.; Lorton, C.; Dhuibhir, P.U.; O’donoghue, N.; O’connor, B.; Cunningham, M.; El Beltagi, N.; Gillham, C.; Walsh, D. Subjective taste and smell changes in treatment-naive people with solid tumours. Support. Care Cancer 2016, 24, 3201–3208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Walliczek-Dworschak, U.; Gudziol, V.; Mitzschke, C.; Froehner, M.; Hummel, T. Testicular cancer patients undergoing cisplatin based chemotherapy exhibit temporary olfactory threshold scores changes. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2017, 274, 2813–2818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Rawson, N.E. Olfactory loss in aging. Sci. Aging Knowl. Environ. 2006, 2006, pe6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Ottaviano, G.; Savietto, E.; Scarpa, B.; Bertocco, A.; Maculan, P.; Sergi, G.; Martini, A.; Manzato, E.; Marioni, G. Influence of number of drugs on olfaction in the elderly. Rhinol. J. 2018, 56, 351–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Stevens, J.C.; Cain, W.S. Changes in taste and flavor in aging. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1993, 33, 27–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Liu, G.; Zong, G.; Doty, R.L.; Sun, Q. Prevalence and risk factors of taste and smell impairment in a nationwide representative sample of the US population: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e013246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Lindley, C.; McCune, J.S.; Thomason, T.E.; Lauder, D.; Sauls, A.; Adkins, S.; Msawyer, W.T.S. Perception of chemotherapy side effects cancer versus noncancer patients. Cancer Pract. 1999, 7, 59–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Buiret, G.; Thomas-Danguin, T.; Feron, G. Metallic taste prevalence in patients treated for cancer: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Support. Care Cancer 2022, 30, 5691–5702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Ponticelli, E.; Clari, M.; Frigerio, S.; De Clemente, A.; Bergese, I.; Scavino, E.; Bernardini, A.; Sacerdote, C. Dysgeusia and health-related quality of life of cancer patients receiving chemotherapy: A cross-sectional study. Eur. J. Cancer Care 2017, 26, e12633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. de Vries, Y.C.; Helmich, E.; Karsten, M.D.A.; Boesveldt, S.; Winkels, R.M.; van Laarhoven, H.W.M. The impact of chemosensory and food-related changes in patients with advanced oesophagogastric cancer treated with capecitabine and oxaliplatin: A qualitative study. Support. Care Cancer 2016, 24, 3119–3126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Gamper, E.-M.; Giesinger, J.M.; Oberguggenberger, A.; Kemmler, G.; Wintner, L.M.; Gattringer, K.; Sperner-Unterweger, B.; Holzner, B.; Zabernigg, A. Taste alterations in breast and gynaecological cancer patients receiving chemotherapy: Prevalence, course of severity, and quality of life correlates. Acta Oncol. 2012, 51, 490–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. O’Donoghue, A.; Barrett, M.; Dhuibhir, P.U.; Kennedy, A.; O’Leary, N.; Walsh, D. Taste and smell abnormalities in advanced cancer: Negative impact on subjective food intake. Nutr. Clin. Pract. 2023, 38, 807–816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Le Guyader, M.; Antoni, D. Under-recognized toxicities of cranial irradiation. Cancer Radiother. 2021, 25, 713–722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Rawal, S.; Hoffman, H.J.; Bainbridge, K.E.; Huedo-Medina, T.B.; Duffy, V.B. Prevalence and Risk Factors of Self-Reported Smell and Taste Alterations: Results from the 2011-2012 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Chem. Senses. 2016, 41, 69–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Leyrer, C.M.; Chan, M.D.; Peiffer, A.M.; Horne, E.; Harmon, M.; Carter, A.F.; Hinson, W.H.; Mirlohi, S.; Duncan, S.E.; Dietrich, A.M.; et al. Taste and smell disturbances after brain irradiation: A dose–volume histogram analysis of a prospective observational study. Pract. Radiat. Oncol. 2014, 4, 130–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Ruo Redda, M.G.; Allis, S. Radiotherapy-induced taste impairment. Cancer Treat. Rev. 2006, 32, 541–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Yamashita, H.; Nakagawa, K.; Tago, M.; Nakamura, N.; Shiraishi, K.; Eda, M.; Nakata, H.; Nagamatsu, N.; Yokoyama, R.; Onimura, M.; et al. Taste dysfunction in patients receiving radiotherapy. Head Neck 2006, 28, 508–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Sandow, P.; Hejrat-Yazdi, M.; Heft, M. Taste loss and recovery following radiation therapy. J. Dent. Res. 2006, 85, 608–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Lin, A.; Kim, H.M.; Terrell, J.E.; Dawson, L.A.; Ship, J.A.; Eisbruch, A. Quality of life after parotid-sparing IMRT for head-and-neck cancer: A prospective longitudinal study. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2003, 57, 61–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Doty, R.L.; Tourbier, I.; Ng, V.; Neff, J.; Armstrong, D.; Battistini, M.; Sammel, M.D.; Gettes, D.; Evans, D.L.; Mirza, N.; et al. Influences of hormone replacement therapy on olfactory and cognitive function in postmenopausal women. Neurobiol. Aging 2015, 36, 2053–2059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Ros, C.; Alobid, I.; Centellas, S.; Balasch, J.; Mullol, J.; Castelo-Branco, C. Loss of smell but not taste in adult women with Turner’s syndrome and other congenital hypogonadisms. Maturitas 2012, 73, 244–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Gunn, L.; Gilbert, J.; Nenclares, P.; Soliman, H.; Newbold, K.; Bhide, S.; Wong, K.H.; Harrington, K.; Nutting, C. Taste dysfunction following radiotherapy to the head and neck: A systematic review. Radiother. Oncol. 2021, 157, 130–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Azzam, P.; Mroueh, M.; Francis, M.; Daher, A.A.; Zeidan, Y.H. Radiation-induced neuropathies in head and neck cancer: Prevention and treatment modalities. Ecancermedicalscience 2020, 14, 1133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Bartoshuk, L.M.; Catalanotto, F.; Hoffman, H.; Logan, H.; Snyder, D.J. Taste damage (otitis media, tonsillectomy and head and neck cancer), oral sensations and BMI. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 107, 516–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  72. Riantiningtyas, R.R.; Carrouel, F.; Bruyas, A.; Bredie, W.L.; Kwiecien, C.; Giboreau, A.; Dougkas, A. Oral Somatosensory Alterations in Head and Neck Cancer Patients—An Overview of the Evidence and Causes. Cancers 2023, 15, 718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  73. Morelli, I.; Desideri, I.; Romei, A.; Scoccimarro, E.; Caini, S.; Salvestrini, V.; Becherini, C.; Livi, L.; Bonomo, P. Impact of radiation dose on patient-reported acute taste alteration in a prospective observational study cohort in head and neck squamous cell cancer (HNSCC). La Radiol. Med. 2023, 128, 1571–1579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Steinbach, S.; Hundt, W.; Zahnert, T.; Berktold, S.; Böhner, C.; Gottschalk, N.; Hamann, M.; Kriner, M.; Heinrich, P.; Schmalfeldt, B.; et al. Gustatory and olfactory function in breast cancer patients. Support. Care Cancer 2010, 18, 707–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Belqaid, K.; Orrevall, Y.; McGreevy, J.; Månsson-Brahme, E.; Wismer, W.; Tishelman, C.; Bernhardson, B.-M. Self-reported taste and smell alterations in patients under investigation for lung cancer. Acta Oncol. 2014, 53, 1405–1412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Grativvol, R.S.; Cavalcante, W.C.P.; Castro, L.H.M.; Nitrini, R.; Simabukuro, M.M. Updates in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes. Curr. Oncol. Rep. 2018, 20, 92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Heers, H.; Gut, J.M.; Hegele, A.; Hofmann, R.; Boeselt, T.; Hattesohl, A.; Koczulla, A.R. Non-invasive Detection of Bladder Tumors Through Volatile Organic Compounds: A Pilot Study with an Electronic Nose. Anticancer Res. 2018, 38, 833–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Hovan, A.J.; Williams, P.M.; Stevenson-Moore, P.; Wahlin, Y.B.; Ohrn, K.E.; Elting, L.S.; Spijkervet, F.K.; Brennan, M.T. Dysgeusia Section, Oral Care Study Group, Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC)/International Society of Oral Oncology (ISOO). A systematic review of dysgeusia induced by cancer therapies. Support Care Cancer 2010, 18, 1081–1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Wickham, R.S.; Rehwaldt, M.; Kefer, C.; Shott, S.; Abbas, K.; Glynn-Tucker, E.; Potter, C.; Blendowski, C. Taste changes experienced by patients receiving chemotherapy. Oncol. Nurs. Forum 1999, 26, 697–706. [Google Scholar]
  80. Ellender, G.; Coveney, J. Flavor alterations in cancer treatment: Extrinsic factors as a means of augmentation. Clin. Nutr. ESPEN 2021, 43, 76–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  81. Epstein, J.; Phillips, N.; Parry, J.; Epstein, M.S.; Nevill, T.; Stevenson-Moore, P. Quality of life, taste, olfactory and oral function following high-dose chemotherapy and allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2002, 30, 785–792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  82. Riga, M.; Chelis, L.; Papazi, T.; Danielides, V.; Katotomichelakis, M.; Kakolyris, S. Hyposmia: An underestimated and frequent adverse effect of chemotherapy. Support. Care Cancer 2015, 23, 3053–3058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Murtaza, B.; Hichami, A.; Khan, A.S.; Ghiringhelli, F.; Khan, N.A. Alteration in Taste Perception in Cancer: Causes and Strategies of Treatment. Front. Physiol. 2017, 8, 134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. Boltong, A.; Aranda, S.; Keast, R.; Wynne, R.; Francis, P.A.; Chirgwin, J.; Gough, K. A prospective cohort study of the effects of adjuvant breast cancer chemotherapy on taste function, food liking, appetite and associated nutritional outcomes. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e103512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Steinbach, S.; Hummel, T.; Böhner, C.; Berktold, S.; Hundt, W.; Kriner, M.; Heinrich, P.; Sommer, H.; Hanusch, C.; Prechtl, A.; et al. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of taste and smell changes in patients undergoing chemotherapy for breast cancer or gynecologic malignancies. J. Clin. Oncol. 2009, 27, 1899–1905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Ijpma, I.; Renken, R.J.; Gietema, J.A.; Slart, R.H.; Mensink, M.G.; Lefrandt, J.D.; Ter Horst, G.J.; Reyners, A.K. Changes in taste and smell function, dietary intake, food preference, and body composition in testicular cancer patients treated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 36, 1642–1648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Webber, T.B.; Briata, I.M.; DeCensi, A.; Cevasco, I.; Paleari, L. Taste and Smell Disorders in Cancer Treatment: Results from an Integrative Rapid Systematic Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 2538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  88. Joseph, P.V.; Nolden, A.; Kober, K.M.; Paul, S.M.; Cooper, B.A.; Conley, Y.P.; Hammer, M.J.; Wright, F.; Levine, J.D.; Miaskowski, C. Fatigue, Stress, and Functional Status are Associated with Taste Changes in Oncology Patients Receiving Chemotherapy. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 2021, 62, 373–382.e2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  89. Turcott, J.G.; Juárez-Hernández, E.; De la Torre-Vallejo, M.; Sánchez-Lara, K.; Luvian-Morales, J.; Arrieta, O. Value: Changes in the Detection and Recognition Thresholds of Three Basic Tastes in Lung Cancer Patients Receiving Cisplatin and Paclitaxel and Its Association with Nutritional and Quality of Life Parameters. Nutr. Cancer 2016, 68, 241–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  90. Sevryugin, O.; Kasvis, P.; Vigano, M.; Vigano, A. Taste and smell disturbances in cancer patients: A scoping review of available treatments. Support. Care Cancer 2021, 29, 49–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  91. Nolden, A.A.; Hwang, L.-D.; Boltong, A.; Reed, D.R. Chemosensory Changes from Cancer Treatment and Their Effects on Patients’ Food Behavior: A Scoping Review. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Cohen, J.; Wakefield, C.E.; Laing, D.G. Smell and Taste Disorders Resulting from Cancer and Chemotherapy. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2016, 22, 2253–2263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  93. Boltong, A.; Keast, R. The influence of chemotherapy on taste perception and food hedonics: A systematic review. Cancer Treat. Rev. 2012, 38, 152–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Comeau, T.B.; Epstein, J.B.; Migas, C. Taste and smell dysfunction in patients receiving chemotherapy: A review of current knowledge. Support. Care Cancer 2001, 9, 575–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Bernhardson, B.M.; Tishelman, C.; Rutqvist, L.E. Taste and smell changes in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy: Distress, impact on daily life, and self-care strategies. Cancer Nurs. 2009, 32, 45–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Enriquez-Fernandez, B.E.; Martinez-Michel, L.; Thorlakson, J.; Wismer, W.V. Patient-reported taste change assessment questionnaires used in the oncology setting: A narrative review. Eur. J. Oncol. Nurs. 2020, 47, 101775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  97. Debbaneh, P.; McKinnon, L.; Haidari, M.; Liang, J. Drug-induced olfactory and gustatory dysfunction: Analysis of FDA adverse events reporting system. Auris Nasus Larynx 2023, 50, 558–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. Studies discussed in this report.
Table 1. Studies discussed in this report.
ReferenceTreatmentObjectiveAlterations StudiedType of CancerYear of Publication
Da Silva [25]Naive patientsCompare oncological-naive patients and healthy controlsSmellAll cancers except for those involving nose, anterior cranial fossa or brain regions near primary olfactory structures2023
Amézaga [26]Chemotherapy and/or hormone therapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellProstate cancer2018
Alonzi [27]Chemotherapy and/or hormone therapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellProstate cancer2021
Campagna [28]ChemoterapyInvestigate taste alterations across chemotherapy regimensTasteprimary cancers2018
Leyrer [29]RadiotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellBrain and nasopharynx cancer2014
Denda [30]ChemoterapyInvestigate taste alterations in patients undergoing treatmentTasteBreast cancer2020
Kaizu [31]ChemoterapyInvestigate taste alterations across chemotherapy regimensTasteVarious primary cancers2021
Malta [32]ChemotherapyInvestigate taste alterations across chemotherapy regimens, localization of primary tumor and patient featuresTasteVarious primary cancers2022
Sicchieri [33]ChemotherapyInvestigate taste alterations in patients undergoing treatmentTasteVarious primary cancers2019
Lilja [34]Surgery, microvascular free-tissue transfer reconstruction, radiotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients before, during and after treatmentTaste and SmellHead and Neck cancer2018
De Vries [35]Chemotherapy and/or immunotherapyCompare patients undergoing treatments with healthy controlsTaste and SmellBreast cancer2018
Epstein [36]Chemotherapy, radiotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellHead and Neck cancer2020
de Vries [37]ChemotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellOesophagogastric cancer2019
Dhuibhir [38]Naive patientsInvestigate TSAs in oncological patients before treatmentsTaste and SmellSolid tumors2020
McGettigan [39]Various treatmentsInvestigate TSAs in patients with advanced cancerTaste and SmellAdvanced cancer (various primary cancers)2019
Alvarez-Camacho [40]Surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients before, during and after treatmentTaste and SmellHead and Neck cancer2016
Drareni [41]ChemotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellLung cancer2023
Jeong [42]ChemoterapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellBreast cancer2023
Hannon [43]Various treatmentsInvestigate TSAs in patients with advanced cancerTaste and SmellAdvanced cancer (various primary cancers)2023
Hiroyuki [44]Various treatmentsInvestigate the impact of TSAs on dietary intakes and cachexia-related quality of lifeTaste and SmellAdvanced cancer (various primary cancers)2023
Riva [45]SurgeryCompare laryngectomized long-term survivors with control subjectsTaste and SmellLaryngeal carcinoma2017
McGreevy [46]Surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellLung cancer2014
Belqaid [47]Surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellLung cancer2016
Spotten [48]Naïve patientsInvestigate TSAs in oncological patients before treatmentTaste and SmellSolid tumors except head and neck 2016
Walliczek-Dworschak [49]ChemotherapyInvestigate TSAs in patients undergoing treatmentTaste and SmellTesticular cancer2017
Barbosa [25]Naive patientsCompare oncological-naive patients with healthy controlsSmellAll cancers except for those involving nose, anterior cranial fossa or brain regions near primary olfactory structures2023
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Rosati, D.; Mastino, P.; Romeo, M.; de Soccio, G.; Pentangelo, D.; Petrella, C.; Barbato, C.; Minni, A. Taste and Smell Alterations (TSAs) in Cancer Patients. Diseases 2024, 12, 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases12060130

AMA Style

Rosati D, Mastino P, Romeo M, de Soccio G, Pentangelo D, Petrella C, Barbato C, Minni A. Taste and Smell Alterations (TSAs) in Cancer Patients. Diseases. 2024; 12(6):130. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases12060130

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rosati, Davide, Pierluigi Mastino, Martina Romeo, Giulia de Soccio, Daniele Pentangelo, Carla Petrella, Christian Barbato, and Antonio Minni. 2024. "Taste and Smell Alterations (TSAs) in Cancer Patients" Diseases 12, no. 6: 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases12060130

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop