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On 10 August 2025, a powerful earthquake (M_w = 6.1) occurred in Balıkesir, located within the Aegean Graben System, one of Türkiye’s major tectonic elements, and was felt across a very wide region. This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the seismotectonic characteristics, recorded ground motions, and observed structural performance during this earthquake, focusing specifically on implications for regional seismic hazard assessment. Peak ground acceleration values obtained from local accelerometer stations were compared with predicted peak ground accelerations. The study also conducted comparisons for Balıkesir districts using the two most recent earthquake hazard maps used in Türkiye. Comparative hazard analyses revealed whether existing seismic hazard maps adequately represent Balıkesir. The findings highlight the need for region-specific hazard model updates, improved implementation of earthquake-resistant design rules, and targeted retrofit strategies to mitigate future earthquake risk. The methodology adopted in this study involved comparative hazard analysis using the last two seismic hazard maps, evaluation of PGA’s across 20 districts of Balıkesir Province, and a field-based survey of structural damage. This integrative approach ensured that both seismological and engineering perspectives were comprehensively addressed. Full article

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17 pages, 3272 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Kynurenine–Tryptophan Ratio (KTR) and CYP1 Activity in Longnose (Catostomus catostomus) and White Suckers (Catostomus commersonii) Exposed to Petroleum-Derived Contaminants from the Alberta Oil Sands Region

by Laiba Jamshed, Amrita Debnath, Amica Marie-Lucas, Thane Tomy, Gregg T. Tomy, Tim J. Arciszewski, Mark E. McMaster and Alison C. Holloway

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100862 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

In the Alberta Oil Sands Region (AOSR), environmental stressors linked to oil sands industrial activity may have significant and species-specific impacts on local wildlife. This study evaluated the kynurenine–tryptophan ratio (KTR) as a potential biomarker for environmental exposure in longnose suckers (Catostomus catostomus) and white suckers (Catostomus commersonii) collected from various locations within the AOSR. The relationship between KTR and CYP1 enzyme activity (ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase; EROD) was assessed alongside biometric indices, including gonadosomatic index (GSI), hepatic somatic index (HSI), and fat content. Both species exhibited increased EROD activity when exposed to oil sands natural deposits and potential industrial activity, indicating significant polycyclic aromatic compound (PAC) exposure. However, KTR changes were species-dependent: longnose suckers showed an inversely proportional relationship between KTR and EROD, while white suckers displayed a directly proportional correlation. Longnose suckers downstream of both municipal waste and industrial activity exhibited significant increases in GSI and fat content, with KTR varying more consistently by location rather than sex, suggesting that KTR may be a more reliable marker for location-based exposure. Species-specific differences in KTR and EROD relationships may be influenced by the distinct environmental requirements of each species, and their differing sensitivities to environmental conditions, including temperature, turbidity and flow conditions, during sampling periods. These findings illustrate the complexity of interpreting environmental biomarkers in wildlife and emphasize the need to consider ecological requirements and environmental conditions. Further research is necessary to validate this biomarker across different years and conditions and enhance its application in environmental monitoring and conservation efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fish Physiological Responses to Environmental Stressors)

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24 pages, 4323 KB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Hydrodynamic Modeling of Low-Flow Conditions with Groundwater–River Interaction: Case Study of the Rur River

by You Wu, Daniel Bachmann and Holger Schüttrumpf

Hydrology 2025, 12(10), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12100270 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Groundwater plays a critical role in maintaining streamflow during low-flow periods. However, accurately quantifying groundwater flow still remains a modeling challenge. Prolonged low-flow or drought conditions necessitate long-term simulations, further increasing the complexity of achieving reliable results. To address these issues, a novel modeling framework (HYD module in LoFloDes) that integrates a one-dimensional (1D) river module with two-dimensional (2D) groundwater module via bidirectional coupling, enabling robust and accurate simulations of both groundwater and river dynamics throughout their interactions, especially over extended periods, was developed. The HYD module was applied to the Rur River, calibrated using gridded groundwater data, groundwater and river gauge data from 2002 to 2005 and validated from 1991 to 2020. During validation periods, the simulated river and groundwater levels generally reproduced observed trends, although suboptimal performance at certain gauges is attributed to unmodeled local anthropogenic influences. Comparative simulations demonstrated that the incorporation of groundwater–river interactions markedly enhanced model performance, especially at the downstream Stah gauge, where the coefficient of determination (R²) increased from 0.83 without interaction to 0.9 with interaction. Consistent with spatio-temporal patterns of this interaction, simulated groundwater contributions increased from upstream to downstream and were elevated during low-flow months. These findings underscore the important role of groundwater contributions in local river dynamics along the Rur River reach. The successful application of the HYD module demonstrates its capacity for long-term simulations of coupled groundwater–surface water systems and underscores its potential as a valuable tool for integrated river and groundwater resources management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Surface Water and Groundwater Resource Management, 2nd Edition)

15 pages, 4503 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Single Antigen Luminex Bead Assay for the Definition of HLA-Specific Antibodies Revisited: Improved Reactivity by Incubation at 37 Degrees Celsius

by Claudia Lehmann, Ramona Landgraf and Ilias Doxiadis

Biologics 2025, 5(4), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics5040031 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Sera from patients before and after organ transplantation were tested at two different temperatures, 21 °C and 37 °C. Currently, organs are transported under normothermic conditions (37 °C). This observational pilot study was conducted to define the effect of the incubation at 37 °C, comparing the results to the usual temperature of 21 °C for serum–bead incubation. Methods: We used the Luminex-based assay for the identification and characterization of HLA-specific antibodies. The assays were performed using single antigen beads for HLA class I and HLA class II. A total of 42 sera were assessed and tested, and 38 were analyzed on the Luminex 200 platform at both temperatures. Results: We noted varying outcomes: both an increase and a decrease in mean fluorescence intensity values. A shift from negative to positive values (n = 6) and vice versa (n = 1) was observed. Several sera (n = 4 for HLA class I and n = 5 for HLA class II) exhibited no alterations. In general, we observed an increase in the mean fluorescence intensity values by incubation at 37 °C. The analysis at the bead level revealed a significant deviation (37 °C vs. 21 °C) for the bead carrying HLA-A80 (p = 0.0006) and two HLA-DQ beads, DQA1*05:01-DQB1*02:01 (p = 0.0438) and DQA1*01:03-DQB1*06:03 (p = 0.0438). Conclusions: Mimicking physiological temperature conditions for the testing of HLA-specific antibodies will lead to the better and more accurate interpretation of the results. This method shows potential for use in the delisting strategy for highly sensitized patients as well, thus allowing a better and more reliable option for the patient awaiting a suitable crossmatch-negative organ. Full article

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24 pages, 3389 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Efficiency of Foliar Herbicides Applied with Drift-Reducing Nozzles

by Sander De Ryck, Eline Van Hecke, Ingrid Zwertvaegher, David Nuyttens, Jan Vanwijnsberghe, Tewodros Andargie Zewdie, Pieter Verboven, Mattie De Meester and Benny De Cauwer

Agriculture 2025, 15(20), 2115; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15202115 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

The increasing implementation of drift-reduction regulations in agriculture has driven the widespread adoption of drift-reducing spray nozzles. However, concerns remain about their impact on the biological efficacy of foliar-applied herbicides, particularly at early weed growth stages. This study evaluated the bio-efficiency of various drift-reducing flat-fan nozzles across three weed species (Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum, and Echinochloa crus-galli), two growth stages, and six herbicides differing in mode of action and formulation properties. Dose–response bioassays were conducted using eight nozzle–pressure combinations under controlled greenhouse conditions. Spray characteristics, including droplet size distribution, coverage, contact angle, and surface tension, were quantified to elucidate interactions affecting herbicide efficacy. The results showed that nozzle effects were more pronounced for high-surface-tension formulations and poorly wettable weed targets. Several coarser droplet drift-reducing nozzles (e.g., ID3, APTJ) showed inferior performance in controlling small C. album and S. nigrum targets with bentazon and erectophile E. crus-galli targets with cycloxydim. At the same time, nozzle choice was less critical for tembotrione and nicosulfuron spray solutions, which have low surface tension. Across weed species, growth stages, and herbicides, nozzles producing finer, slower droplets demonstrated superior and more consistent performance compared to those producing larger, faster droplets. These findings offer science-based guidance for selecting nozzle types that balance drift mitigation with effective weed control under current and future regulatory constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

16 pages, 2721 KB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive Strength Prediction of Green Concrete with Recycled Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polymers Using a Machine Learning Approach

by Pouyan Fakharian, Reza Bazrgary, Ali Ghorbani, Davoud Tavakoli and Younes Nouri

Polymers 2025, 17(20), 2731; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17202731 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials are increasingly used in the construction and transportation industries, generating growing volumes of waste. This study applied a machine learning model to predict the compressive strength of eco-friendly concrete incorporating recycled glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) waste. Based on 119 laboratory mixes, the model achieved a good prediction accuracy (R² = 0.8284 on the test set). The analysis indicated that compressive strength tends to decrease at higher GFRP dosages, with relatively favorable performance observed at low contents. The two most influential factors were the water-to-cement ratio and the total GFRP content. The physical form of the recycled material was also important: powders and fibers generally showed positive effects, while coarse aggregate replacement was less effective. This machine learning-based approach offers preliminary quantitative guidance on mix design with GFRP waste and highlights opportunities for reusing industrial by-products in more sustainable concretes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Degradation Mechanism of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer and Reuse of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Wastes)

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14 pages, 1658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and In Vitro Activity of Sesquiterpene Lactones from Eremanthus crotonoides as SARS-CoV-2 Protease Inhibitors and Cytotoxic Agents

by Patricia Homobono Brito de Moura, Natalie Giovanna da Rocha Ximenes, Beatriz Bastos Santos, Carla Monteiro Leal, Larissa Esteves Carvalho Constant, Stephany da Silva Costa, Shaft Corrêa Pinto, Michelle Frazao Muzitano, Diego Allonso, Ludger A. Wessjohann and Ivana Correa Ramos Leal

Molecules 2025, 30(20), 4053; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30204053 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

The Jurubatiba Sandbank National Park (PARNA Jurubatiba) is an ecological reserve characterized by harsh environmental conditions, including low rainfall, high sun exposure, and sandy soil. Among its native vegetation, Eremanthus crotonoides stands out for its richness in flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and sesquiterpene lactones. The objective of this study was to isolate and quantify sesquiterpene lactones from this species using ¹H NMR and to investigate their anti-SARS-CoV-2 potential and cytotoxicity against cancer cells. UPLC-(ESI)-MS/MS analyses enabled metabolite annotation, and semi-preparative HPLC-DAD allowed the isolation of centratherin and goyazensolide, which were identified by 1D and 2D NMR. In vitro assays showed that centratherin at 10 µM concentration reduced the viability of PC-3 and HCT-116 cancer cells by 100%, while goyazensolide had no noteworthy effects. Furthermore, enzymatic inhibition assays on SARS-CoV2 targets revealed that centratherin exhibited a lower apparent IC₅₀ of 12 µM against PL^pro, while goyazensolide was more active against 3CL^pro, with an IC₅₀ of 71 µM. Notably, the dichloromethane fraction demonstrated promising activity against both enzymes, with IC₅₀ values of 30 µM for PL^pro and 11 µM for 3CL^pro. This study reports, for the first time, the isolation of goyazensolide from E. crotonoides and highlights the potential of both sesquiterpene lactones as SARS-CoV-2 enzyme inhibitors. In contrast to centratherin, goyazensolide fortunately had almost no cytotoxic effects at inhibition concentration on the cells tested. This shows that anticancer and anti-SARS effects can be separated and should have different SARs, an important prerequisite for further development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Metabolites: Isolation, Phytochemistry, and Biological Activities)

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22 pages, 10960 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Fatigue Evaluation of As-Built WAAM Steel Through Experimental Testing and Finite Element Simulation

by Sanjay Gothivarekar, Steven Brains, Bart Raeymaekers and Reza Talemi

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(20), 10936; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010936 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has attracted considerable interest over the past three decades, driven by growing industrial demand. Among metal AM techniques, Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), a Directed Energy Deposition (DED) variant, has emerged as a prominent method for producing large-scale components with high deposition rates and cost efficiency. However, WAAM parts typically exhibit rough surface profiles, which can induce stress concentrations and promote fatigue crack initiation under cyclic loading. This study presents an integrated experimental and numerical investigation into the fatigue performance of as-built WAAM steel. Fatigue specimens extracted from a WAAM-fabricated wall were tested under cyclic loading, followed by fractography to assess the influence of surface irregularities and subsurface defects on fatigue behaviour. Surface topography analysis identified critical stress-concentration regions and key surface roughness parameters. Additionally, 3D scanning was used to reconstruct the specimen topography, enabling detailed 2D and 3D finite element (FE) modelling to analyze stress distribution along the as-built surface and predict fatigue life. A Smith-Watson-Topper (SWT) critical plane-based approach was applied for multiaxial fatigue life estimation. The results reveal a good correlation between experimental fatigue data and numerically predicted results, validating the proposed combined methodology for assessing durability of as-built WAAM components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue and Fracture Behavior of Engineering Materials)

28 pages, 2046 KB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Versus Physical Number Line Training for 6-Year-Olds: Similar Learning Outcomes, Different Pathways

by Eva-Maria Ternblad, Maybi Morell Ruiz and Sonja Holmer

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 1350; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15101350 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

According to previous research, young children’s numeracy skills may be scaffolded by practicing on the number line. A number line estimation task (NLET) is often conducted with pen and paper, while linear number games are often implemented on a computer or a tablet. If and how the format—physical or digital—influences the accuracy of the estimations is, however, not well-known. If regarding NLET performance as dependent on specific strategies and hypothesizing that these strategies may be affected by the material used, we may also assume that different materials may either support or hinder children’s learning. In this paper, we explore whether training with a physical versus a virtual NLET game will affect children’s strategies when solving NLETs, and if these strategies relate to the accuracy of the estimations. Sixty-two 6-year-old children played an NLET game (virtual or physical) for three sessions, being scaffolded and guided by a researcher. NLET performance was measured by pre- and post-tests, as well as during the intervention. The results show that even if the condition did not significantly affect the children’s overall numeracy skills, the children in the physical condition did express more advanced strategies during the intervention. These strategies, in turn, predicted NLET performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Mathematical Thinking in Early Childhood Education)

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28 pages, 585 KB

Open AccessReview

Sleep Deprivation and Its Impact on Insulin Resistance

by Margarida C. Pinheiro, Henrique E. Costa, Melissa Mariana and Elisa Cairrao

Endocrines 2025, 6(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/endocrines6040049 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Adequate sleep has a fundamental role in human health, mainly in cognitive and physiological functions. However, the daily demands of modern society have led to a constant pursuit of better living conditions, requiring more active hours at the expense of sleeping hours. This sleep deprivation has been associated with human health deterioration, namely an increase in Diabetes Mellitus incidence. This metabolic disease is a chronic pathology that imposes a big burden on health systems and is associated with the rise in insulin resistance. In this sense, the aim of this review is to analyze the relation between sleep deprivation and insulin resistance, emphasizing the metabolic parameters and hormones that may be involved in the subjacent mechanism. Methods: A literature review of the last 10 years was performed with specific terms related to “sleep deprivation” and “insulin resistance”. Results: Overall, the studies analyzed showed a decrease in insulin sensitivity in cases of sleep deprivation, even with different study protocols. In addition, an association between sleep deprivation and increased non-esterified fatty acids was also noticeable; however, other parameters such as cortisol, metanephrines, and normetanephrines showed no consistent results among the studies. Conclusions: This review allowed us to confirm the relationship between sleep deprivation and insulin resistance; however, despite the difficulties to monitor sleep, more research is needed to understand the related mechanisms that have not yet been clarified. Full article

22 pages, 2456 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gut Microbiota of Peruvian Anchovy (Engraulis ringens) as a Novel Source of Lipase-Producing Bacteria with Biocatalytic Potential

by Margaret Huarcaya, Antony Barrientos, Jhonathan S. Benites Pariente, Luis Gabriel Gutierrez Mesias, Ilanit Samolski, Yvette Ludeña and Gretty K. Villena

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(20), 10930; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010930 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

The search for novel microbial lipases with robust and versatile biochemical properties remains a priority in industrial biotechnology. In this study, the gut microbiota of the Peruvian anchovy (Engraulis ringens) was explored as a potential source of lipase-producing bacteria. A total of 31 distinct bacterial strains were isolated, among which 10 exhibited extracellular lipase activity in qualitative plate assays. Molecular identification revealed representatives of the genera Staphylococcus, Serratia, and Aeromonas. Two promising strains, Staphylococcus ureilyticus LMB-06 and LMB-Ju02, were selected based on their superior lipase productivity and were further subjected to partial biochemical characterization. Their lipase-containing secretomes displayed activity across a broad temperature range, retained stability under mildly acidic conditions (pH 5.0–6.0), tolerated several organic solvents, and exhibited enhanced activity in the presence of Ca²⁺. Notably, the lipase activity of LMB-06 was positively influenced by Mg²⁺ and K⁺—a response not previously reported for Staphylococcus lipases—suggesting unique enzymatic properties. In addition, LMB-06 retained activity in the presence of H₂O₂, highlighting its suitability for biodiesel production from recycled oils. Furthermore, hydrolysis assays using various natural oils as substrates revealed a marked preference for plant-based oils, particularly olive oil. Altogether, these findings highlight the value of S. ureilyticus strains from anchovy gut microbiota as novel biocatalyst sources for sustainable oil bioprocessing and oleochemical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Applied Microbiology)

29 pages, 5680 KB

Open AccessArticle

Injection Strategies in a Hydrogen SI Engine: Parameter Selection and Comparative Analysis

by Oleksandr Osetrov and Rainer Haas

Hydrogen 2025, 6(4), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen6040084 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Injection strategies play a crucial role in determining hydrogen engine performance. The diversity of these strategies and the limited number of comparative studies highlight the need for further investigation. This study focuses on the analysis, parameter selection, and comparison of single early and late direct injection, single injection with ignition occurring during injection (the so-called jet-guided operation), and dual injection in a hydrogen spark-ignition engine. The applicability and effectiveness of these injection strategies are assessed using contour maps, with ignition timing and start of injection as coordinates representing equal levels of key engine parameters. Based on this approach, injection and ignition settings are selected for a range of engine operating modes. Simulations of engine performance under different load conditions are carried out using the selected parameters for each strategy. The results indicate that the highest indicated thermal efficiencies are achieved with single late injection, while the lowest occur with dual injection. At the same time, both dual injection and jet-guided operation provide advantages in terms of knock suppression, peak pressure reduction, and reduced nitrogen oxide emissions. Full article

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21 pages, 3160 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation of Amine Concentrations in Blood and Cerebrospinal Fluid in Healthy Volunteers and Migraineurs

by Aster V. E. Harder, Jan B. van Klinken, Robin M. van Dongen, Gerrit L. J. Onderwater, Michel D. Ferrari, Amy C. Harms, Thomas Hankemeier, Gisela M. Terwindt and Arn M. J. M. van den Maagdenberg

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(20), 9899; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26209899 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Many central nervous system disorders (CNS), including chronic pain and migraine, involve metabolic changes in the brain. These changes are best detected and monitored in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which requires lumbar puncture. Blood-based measurements may offer an alternative, if they reflect CSF changes. To assess this, we measured and correlated the concentrations of 39 amino acids, biogenic amines, and other amines in blood and CSF of 95 healthy volunteers and, in addition, correlated the ratios of 741 amines. Amines were measured using a validated UPLC-MS platform. In healthy volunteers, only 4/39 (10.3%) analyzed amine metabolite concentrations had a correlation coefficient ≥ 0.70. Correlations of metabolite ratios were significantly better for 308/741 (41.5%) combinations. Specifically, ratios of amino acids showed high correlations. In addition, amines were investigated in 197 participants with migraine. Six amine metabolite ratios were different in migraineurs versus healthy volunteers. Most blood amine concentrations do not reflect those in CSF, but many of the ratios did correlate between CSF and plasma, showing diagnostic potential. This study improves our understanding of blood-CSF relationships, and our data suggest that ratios of amines may be of relevance to CNS disorders, as we showed for migraine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Compounds in Neurological Diseases)

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14 pages, 612 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Trustful Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Therapy Using an Explainable Artificial Intelligence Dashboard

by Thomas De Corte, Jarne Verhaeghe, Femke Ongenae, Jan J. De Waele and Sofie Van Hoecke

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(20), 10933; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010933 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

The application of machine learning (ML) in healthcare has surged, yet its adoption in high-stakes clinical domains, like the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), remains low. This gap is largely driven by a lack of clinician trust in AI decision support. Explainable AI (XAI) techniques aim to address this by explaining how an AI reaches its decisions, thereby improving transparency. However, rigorous evaluation of XAI methods in clinical settings is lacking. Therefore, we evaluated the perceived explainability of a dashboard incorporating three XAI methods for an ML model that predicts piperacillin plasma concentrations. The dashboard was evaluated by seven ICU clinicians using five distinct patient cases. We assessed the interpretation and perceived explainability of each XAI component through a targeted survey. The overall dashboard received a median score of seven out of ten for completeness of explainability, with Ceteris Paribus profiles identified as the most preferred XAI method. Our findings provide a practical framework for evaluating XAI in critical care, offering crucial insights into clinician preferences that can guide the future development and implementation of trustworthy AI in the ICU. Full article

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21 pages, 4250 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mediating Role of Virtual Agglomeration in How ICT Infrastructure Drives Urban–Rural Integration: Evidence from China

by Lei Zhang, Jingfeng Yuan, Bing Zhu, Bingsheng Liu and Qiqi Ai

Land 2025, 14(10), 2032; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14102032 (registering DOI) - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure can facilitate urban–rural integration. However, few studies have explored the role of virtual agglomeration in the mechanisms underlying this process, which can enable geographically dispersed market participants (both urban and rural) to achieve proximity in network space through digital connectivity provided by ICT. This study uses the PLS-SEM method to empirically analyzes the relationships among ICT infrastructure, virtual agglomeration, and urban–rural integration based on data obtained from 31 provincial-level regions in China from 2012 to 2022. The results indicate that: (1) ICT infrastructure can promote urban–rural integration. (2) Virtual agglomeration plays a significant mediating role in the relationship between ICT infrastructure and urban–rural integration. In relatively developed eastern China, virtual agglomeration fully mediates the impact of ICT infrastructure on urban–rural integration. (3) Other complementary infrastructures—including transport and education—have positive moderating effects on the process of virtual agglomeration facilitated by ICT. This study advances the understanding of ICT’s effects on regional development from the perspective of employing a new form of spatial agglomeration (i.e., virtual agglomeration). Meanwhile, this study indicates that in order to address the global challenge of urban–rural divide, it is necessary to strengthen the development of ICT infrastructure in remote rural areas, while developing complementary infrastructure such as transportation or education in alignment with regional characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Contexts and Urban-Rural Interactions)

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