Search Results (65)

Background. Physical activity enhances cognitive performance in adolescents, yet the role of circadian timing within the school day remains poorly understood. Purpose. This study examined whether the timing of school-based physical activity (morning, midday, afternoon) influences cognitive performance, subjective alertness, and mood states in early adolescents. Methods. A 12-week crossover intervention was conducted with 102 students (aged 12–13 years) from southern Italy. Each class participated in three 4-week conditions of structured physical activity scheduled in the morning (8:10–9:10), midday (12:10–13:10), and afternoon (15:10–16:10), separated by one-week washouts. Cognitive outcomes (d2-R, Digit Span backward, TMT-A), subjective alertness (KSS), and mood (PANAS-C) were assessed at baseline and after each condition. Analyses employed linear mixed-effects models and repeated-measures ANOVAs, adjusting for sex, BMI, chronotype, and sleep duration. Results. Morning activity produced the strongest improvements in attention (d2-R, η²p = 0.16), working memory (Digit Span backward, η²p = 0.06), processing speed (TMT-A, η²p = 0.08), alertness (KSS, η²p = 0.19), and positive affect (PANAS-C, η²p = 0.05). Midday sessions yielded moderate benefits (d2-R, η²p = 0.09; Digit Span backward, η²p = 0.05; TMT-A, η²p = 0.07; KSS, η²p = 0.09), while afternoon activity showed the weakest or nonsignificant changes (all η²p < 0.05). Chronotype moderated the effects on attention and working memory, with morning types deriving the largest gains. Conclusions. The timing of physical activity is a critical determinant of its cognitive and affective benefits. Incorporating morning exercise into school timetables may represent a low-cost, scalable strategy to optimize both learning readiness and well-being in adolescents. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study investigates the efficacy of working memory training (WMT) using the dual N-back (DNB) task on cognitive performance in young adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Methods: Over the course of at least 18 daily sessions conducted within one month, 106 participants (33 non-medicated ADHD, 42 medicated ADHD, and 45 controls) were randomly assigned to either a fixed dual 1-back (FD1B) training condition or an adaptive DNB condition, wherein the N-back level increased following successful completion of each trial block. Cognitive performance was assessed pre- and post-intervention using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Working Memory Index (WMI) and the Corsi Block-Tapping Task. Results: A mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant improvements in DNB performance across all groups, with the adaptive training condition producing larger gains (e.g., a 204.6% improvement in controls, Cohen’s $d=1.85$). WAIS-IV WMI scores—particularly the Digit Span Backward subtest—also improved significantly post-training, with greater effect sizes in the adaptive condition ($d=0.46$) than in FD1B ($d=0.27$). Corsi performance showed very modest gains, showing a surprising tendency to be more associated with the FD1B condition than the adaptive condition. Control participants outperformed the medicated ADHD group on WAIS-IV subtests, although no significant differences emerged between medicated and non-medicated ADHD participants. Correlational analyses indicated task-specific training effects, with adaptive training enhancing associations between DNB and Corsi performance in both controls ($r=0.60$) and medicated ADHD participants ($r=0.51$). Conclusions: This study demonstrates that dual N-back training improves verbal working memory in young adults with ADHD, specifically in a sample without psychiatric comorbidities. Transfer benefit to visuospatial domains appears limited and may not generalize to adolescents, older adults, or individuals with complex clinical profiles. The results underscore the importance of tailoring training protocols to maximize cognitive outcomes across different domains. Full article

In this paper, we aimed to evaluate the efficacy and usefulness of three brief, easy-to-administer, and repeatable tests, namely SDMT, Digit Span Forward (DSF), and Digit Span Backward (DSB) in MS patients (MSp), and compared the results with those of healthy volunteers (CONs). We were hoping to identify the most sensitive test that could be used regularly in clinical practice. In addition, we tried to identify the metabolic background of the cognitive setting using the advanced radiological method, Mescher–Garwood (MEGA)-edited 1H Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H-MRS). A total of 22 relapsing MSp and 22 CONs were enrolled. The SDMT, DSF, and DSB tests were used on all participants. The patients also underwent a 1H-MRS brain examination. In addition to N-Acetyl-Aspartate (tNAA), Myoinositol (mIns), Choline (tCho), and Creatine (tCr) were also evaluated GABA and Glutamate–Glutamine (Glx) ratios. CONs were superior to MSp in the results of all neurocognitive tests. The DSB was found to be the most sensitive test for identifying MSp. The SDMT in MSp correlated with inflammatory and degenerative metabolites in the thalamus, hippocampus, and corpus callosum. A correlation between increased Glx- and GABA-ratios and SDMT was found. Unlike the SDMT, the DSF and DSB showed correlations with inflammatory metabolites in the caudate nucleus and hypothalamus. DSF correlated with GABA ratios in the hippocampus. Our study confirms the efficacy of DSF and DSB tests in evaluating working memory cognitive impairment in MSp, showing an association of the tests with specific brain metabolites. Full article

Sex hormones’ and menstrual cycle’s effects on cognitive performance remain unclear. This study examined cognitive differences between women across menstrual cycle phases, sex differences between women and men, and hormone–cognition associations. In total, 71 healthy young adults, aged 20–36 (42 women, 29 men), completed standardised cognitive tests measuring attention, processing speed, working memory, and visuospatial abilities. Women were tested twice: during menstrual (low-oestradiol) and pre-ovulatory (high-oestradiol) phases; men once. Hormone levels (oestradiol, progesterone, testosterone) were measured in blood samples via electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (ECLIA). Two analytical strategies were used: (1) within-subject analysis comparing women between phases, and (2) between-group comparison across three groups—women in menstrual phase, pre-ovulatory phase, and men. Women performed better during pre-ovulatory versus menstrual phase in working memory (Digit span forward: p = 0.04; Digit span backwards max: p = 0.02) and attention switching (Trail Making Test B: p = 0.01). Sex differences in processing speed were observed only during the menstrual phase (Trail Making Test A: p = 0.03; Stroop B: p = 0.04), but not in the pre-ovulatory phase. Positive correlations between oestradiol/progesterone and cognitive performance were found in men, while complex bidirectional relationships emerged in women during the menstrual phase only. Testosterone showed no significant correlations. These findings highlight hormonal status effects on cognitive sex differences. Full article

Background/Objectives: Obesity in adolescence is associated with a deterioration in cognitive functions, with significant implications for psychophysical well-being and academic performance. Recent studies highlight the importance of integrated interventions that combine nutrition education and physical activity to promote the overall health of students. The present study aims to evaluate the efficacy of an integrated intervention based on nutritional education and conscious body movement in improving cognitive functions, perceived well-being and nutritional knowledge in lower secondary school students with indicators of overweight and obesity. Methods: A quasi-experimental design with randomization at the class level was adopted, involving 60 students divided into an experimental group and control group. The intervention was divided into twelve weeks of activities, divided between nutritional education modules and physical activity courses. Standardized tests for the assessment of cognitive functions (Digit Span Forward, Digit Span Backward, Stroop Test, Trail Making Test B), motor tests (6-Minute Walk Test, Sit and Reach Test) and a food knowledge questionnaire were administered before and after the intervention. Results: The experimental group showed significant improvements compared to the control group in all cognitive, motor, and nutritional knowledge measures, indicating the effectiveness of the integrated intervention in promoting cognitive and physical well-being. Conclusions: The findings support the role of school as a generative environment of integrated well-being, suggesting the need to develop and implement curricular programs that integrate nutrition education and physical activity to counteract the negative effects of obesity on cognitive function in adolescents. Full article

Background/Objectives: Executive function, which includes inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, tends to decline with aging. While traditional resistance training (TRT) has shown positive effects in mitigating these declines, limited evidence is available regarding flywheel resistance training (FRT). This study aimed to evaluate and compare the effects of TRT and FRT on executive function in older women. Methods: In this randomized controlled trial (clinicaltrials.gov NCT05910632), 29 older women were allocated into two groups: TRT (n = 15) and FRT (n = 14). The intervention lasted eight weeks with two weekly sessions conducted at the Federal University of Viçosa. The TRT group performed exercises using machines and free weights, while the FRT group used a multi-leg isoinertial device. Executive function was assessed using the Victoria Stroop Test (inhibitory control), Digit Span Test (working memory), and Trail Making Tests A and B (cognitive flexibility). Data were analyzed using a Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (p < 0.05). Results: No significant changes were observed in inhibitory control (p = 0.350). Working memory improved significantly within both groups in forward (p = 0.002) and backward (p = 0.002) span tasks. For cognitive flexibility, Trail Making Test A showed no significant changes (p > 0.05), but Test B showed significant within-group (p = 0.030) and between-group (p = 0.020) improvements. The B-A difference was also significant (p = 0.040). Conclusions: Both resistance training modalities enhanced working memory and cognitive flexibility. However, FRT produced greater improvements in cognitive flexibility, suggesting potential advantages in cognitive aging interventions. Full article

Background/Objectives: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including mainly ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD), have been associated with cognitive and psychological changes, though the mechanisms remain unclear. Methods: This prospective case-control study aimed to evaluate cognitive performance and biomarkers (homocysteine, serum amyloid A, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and S100B protein) in IBD patients. Results: A total of 90 individuals (34 UC, 21 CD, and 35 controls) were assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), the Memory Impairment Index (MIS), and biomarker analysis. MoCA and MIS testing showed significant differences between UC, CD, and the controls, with lower scores observed in IBD groups (p = 0.003, p = 0.015). Regarding trail-making tests, digit symbol substitution tests, and forward and backward digit spans, no significant changes were observed. No functional deficits were observed in daily activities. Biomarker analysis revealed lower brain-derived neurotrophic factor and higher serum amyloid A levels in IBD patients, correlated to MOCA and MIS scores. There were no significant differences in psychological distress between IBD patients and the controls. Subtle cognitive declines were noted across all groups during the 1-year follow-up, without any statistical significance when groups were compared. Conclusions: In conclusion, IBD patients reported lower cognitive scores compared to the controls, while no differences in depression and anxiety scores were observed. Higher BDNF levels correlated with better cognitive functioning, while higher serum amyloid A correlated with lower cognitive functioning. Full article

The widespread adoption of background music in workplaces contrasts with the inconsistent empirical evidence regarding its cognitive effects, particularly concerning how music types influence the sequential pathway from flow states to work engagement and task performance. While prior research identifies flow and engagement as potential mediators, theoretical conflicts persist regarding their temporal dynamics and susceptibility to auditory habituation. This study tested three hypotheses: (1) music type indirectly affects performance through flow–engagement mediation, (2) high-arousal music impairs while structured compositions (e.g., Mozart’s K448) enhance this pathway, and (3) repeated exposure diminishes music’s efficacy. A two-phase longitudinal experiment with 428 Chinese undergraduates employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze data from randomized groups (control, high-arousal, low-arousal, and Mozart K448), completing Backward Digit Span tasks under controlled auditory conditions. The results confirmed Mozart K448’s superior immediate mediation effect (β = 0.118, 95% CI [0.072, 0.181]) compared to high-arousal music’s detrimental impact (β = −0.112, 95% CI [−0.182, −0.056]), with flow fully mediating engagement’s influence on performance. A longitudinal analysis revealed a 53% attenuation in Mozart’s flow-enhancing effect after a 30-day familiarization (B = 0.150 vs. baseline 0.321), though residual benefits persisted. These findings reconcile the cognitive tuning and arousal–mood hypotheses by proposing a hybrid model where music initially operates through a novelty-driven dopamine release before transitioning to schema-based cognitive priming. Practically, the results advocate tiered auditory strategies: deploying structured music during skill acquisition phases while rotating selections to counter habituation. The study highlights the cultural specificity in auditory processing, challenging universal prescriptions and underscoring the need for localized music policies. By integrating flow theory with neurocognitive habituation models, this research advances evidence-based guidelines for optimizing workplace auditory environments. Full article

Background/Objectives: Obesity is linked to a higher risk of cognitive impairment. The objective of this single blind randomized trial was to evaluate the impact of dark sweet cherry (DSC) intake on cognitive function in obese adults. Methods: Participants (body mass index (BMI): 30–40 kg/m², >18 years, without chronic diseases and/or antibiotic use) consumed 200 mL of DSC drink with 3 g of cherry powder (n = 19) or an isocaloric placebo drink (n = 21) twice daily for 30 days. Cognitive function was assessed at Day 1 (D1) and Day 30 (D30) using standardized cognitive tests and the NeuroTracker (NT) 3D training program. Blood biomarkers related to cognitive health (neurotensin, substance p, and oxytocin) and circadian rhythm (melatonin and cortisol) were assessed at D1 and D30 using a Luminex multiplex bead-based immunoassay. Results: DSC supplementation significantly improved working memory and concentration, as indicated by higher scores in the digit span forward (DSF, p = 0.006) and backward (DSB, p = 0.01) tests. However, processing speed, sustained attention, and visual spatial skills, assessed through the trail making (TMT) and digit symbol substitution (DSST) tests, as well as visual cognitive performance (VCP) evaluated by the NT program, showed no significant differences between groups. Neurotensin, associated with cognitive deficits, increased in both cherry and placebo groups but was significant only in the placebo group (p = 0.007). Similarly, melatonin increased in both groups, reaching significance only in the placebo group (p = 0.02), and it correlated positively with IFNγ, suggesting a compensatory response to inflammation. Conclusions: These findings suggest DSC supplementation may enhance specific cognitive functions in obese adults. Further clinical trials are needed to confirm these results. Full article

Objectives: The effects of brain tumors located in the supplementary motor area (SMA) have so far been described mainly in the context of motor and speech disorders. There are few studies that have considered other cognitive domains, so this study aimed to fill this gap by focusing on examining attention and working memory in a population of patients with gliomas in the SMA region. Methods: This study included 50 patients diagnosed with gliomas located in the SMA who have not yet had any treatment and 57 demographically matched healthy individuals. A set of neuropsychological tests was conducted to assess attention and working memory: Digit Span from WAIS-R, Visual Elevator from TEA, Verbal Fluency Test (switching condition), and Color Trails Test (CTT). Results: The analyses showed that patients scored lower in most of the evaluated tests and indicators, namely in Digit Span-forward (t = −2.05; p = 0.022), Digit Span-backward (t = −2.63; p = 0.005), CTT-2 (t = 4.24; p = 0.001), CTT-interference (t = 2.31; p = 0.012), Visual Elevator-time (t = 1.83; p = 0.035), Visual Elevator-accuracy (t = −2.42, p = 0.010), and Verbal Fluency-switching (t = −3.41; p = 0.001). A significant relationship was also demonstrated between the grade of tumor malignancy and the results achieved in some of the neuropsychological tests. The lateralization of the tumor, the size of the lesion, and the presence of epilepsy did not prove to be particularly significant. Conclusions: Due to the significant decline in cognitive performance in terms of attention and working memory, we believe that every patient with a tumor in the SMA should undergo a detailed neuropsychological examination, which will profile their functioning and help tailor the best possible psychological care. Full article

Background: Working memory (WM) involves temporarily storing and manipulating information. Research on the impact of aging on WM has shown inconsistent results regarding the decline in visual and verbal WM, with a lack of studies on tactile WM. This study aimed to assess the effects of aging on WM across verbal, visuospatial, and tactile modalities using span tasks of forward (storage) and backward (manipulation) stages. Methods: A total of 130 participants, divided into four age groups of 20–29, 60–69, 70–79, and 80–89, completed the Digit, Visuospatial, and Tactual Spans. Performance was analyzed using a 3 (Task) × 4 (Group) × 2 (Stage) mixed design repeated measures ANOVA. Results: The analysis revealed significant main effects for modality (p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.15), age (p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.48), and stage (p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.30). Digit Span outperformed the other modalities, while Tactual Span showed the worst performance. Additionally, task performance declined with age, and the forward stage was superior to the backward stage. Interaction effects indicated that Digit Span was less affected by aging compared to the Visuospatial and Tactual Spans (p = 0.004, η_p² = 0.07). Post hoc analyses further revealed that the Digit Span consistently outperformed the other modalities in both stages, with more pronounced differences observed in the forward stage. Conclusions: Verbal WM is more resilient to aging compared to the other modalities while tactile WM declines with age in a manner similar to verbal and visuospatial WM, suggesting a modality-specific impact of aging on WM. Full article

The focus of the present paper is twofold; the first objective is to examine how children with dyslexia (henceforward DYS children) and typically developing children (henceforward TD children) performed in Greek (first language; L1) compared to English (second language; L2) in reading, phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), working memory (WM), and short-term memory (STM) tasks. Our second goal is to investigate DYS children’s performance compared to that of TD children in the L1 and L2 domains mentioned above. Thirty-two (DYS = 16; TD = 16) school-aged children (9;7–11;9 years old; M_age = 130.41), basic users of English (level ranging from A1 to A2), carried out a battery test in L1 and L2, respectively, including reading, PA, STM, and WM tasks. More specifically, the tasks were the following: word and nonword decoding, reading accuracy and reading fluency, word and nonword reading per minute, PA, RAN, nonword repetition, as well as forward, backward, and digit span sequencing. This is a work-in-progress study, and preliminary results reveal that DYS students exhibit important reading and memory deficits in both languages. The data analysis indicated that DYS children have particular difficulties and statistically significant differences in L1 and L2 compared to TD in all tasks. In conclusion, this is the first study, at least in Greek, which assesses both reading and memory skills of DYS children in L2. The results reveal deficits in both languages, and the overall findings contribute to theories on the transfer of difficulties of linguistic skills between L1 and L2, while memory scores also underline this co-occurrence. Future implications of this study include a combination of reading and cognitive activities in the teaching methods of English teachers to improve DYS children’s overall performance in learning English as L2. Full article

Introduction: Impairments in social cognition and cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder (BD) offer insights into the disorder’s progression. Understanding how interventions impact both cognitive and emotional aspects of social cognition is essential. This study examines the effects of virtual reality (VR) cognitive remediation on cognitive skills, stratified by age, in the early stages of the disorder. Methods: A secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) compared the efficacy of VR cognitive remediation on cognitive skills between young adults (≤58 years) and older adults (≥59 years) in the experimental group with BD. Results: The experimental group included 39 participants: 24 ≤ 58 years and 15 ≥ 59 years. Young adults showed greater improvement in the Digit Span Backward (0.37 ± 0.35 vs. 0.07 ± 0.26, F = 9.882, p = 0.020) and Digit Symbol tests (3.84 ± 3.05 vs. 1.16 ± 3.8, F = 5.895, p = 0.020). Older adults improved more in the Frontal Assessment Battery (1.00 ± 0.95 vs. 0.54 ± 0.21, F = 5.295, p = 0.027), Matrix test (0.58 ± 0.35 vs. 0.37 ± 0.26, F = 4.606, p = 0.038), and Test of Tale (0.81 ± 0.36 vs. 0.42 ± 0.38, F = 10.115, p = 0.003). Conclusions: Young adults improved more in complex cognitive tasks, while older adults showed better results in simpler tasks. The effectiveness of VR may be due to hyperstimulation of mirror neurons. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings. Full article

Introduction: The rapid spread of the COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the psychological well-being of millions of people around the world, and even more so among children. Contracting SARS-CoV-2, resulting in home confinement and restrictions on daily and school activities, led to negative effects on the mental health of the paediatric population. Although children suffering from COVID-19 had milder general symptoms compared to adults, impairments in cognitive, neuropsychological, and emotional-behavioural development were noted. Objective: The main aim of the present study was to detect possible changes in the neuropsychological and emotional-behavioural development of children after infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The second aim was to investigate possible relationships between cognitive abilities and psychosocial characteristics. Methods: A total of 40 patients aged 8–9 years were recruited and divided into two groups: children who contracted (CG) and did not contract (NCG) SARS-CoV-2. The BVN 5–11 (Neuropsychological evaluation battery for developmental age from 5 to 11 years) instrument was administered to assess attention, memory, verbal recall, planning, phonemics, and categorical fluency domains in the paediatric population. Data on changes in emotional-behavioural profile and daily activities were collected through a questionnaire to parents. Results: The Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed a significant change in mood after the COVID-19 period only in the CG participants (p = 0.019). However, the neuropsychological performance of the two identified groups on BVN 5–11 sub-items was below the cutoff of clinical significance. Correlations were found between sub-items of the BVN 5–11 battery, extracurricular activities, and children’s psycho-motor development. Significant positive correlations were observed between Naming on visual presentation and Reading time (p = 0.006), backward digit span and time of motor activity (p = 0.009), Visual attention and Reading time (p = 0.048), and Phonemic fluency and time observed using devices (p = 0.030). Positive statistically significant correlations were also found between Mood and Free behaviour (p = 0.000), between Mood and Structured behaviour (p = 0.005), and between Mood and peer Interaction (p = 0.013). Conclusions: SARS-CoV-2 infection negatively affected the emotional development of children contracting the virus. The neuropsychological functioning of the paediatric population was influenced by psychosocial variables and time spent on daily activities, which played a protective role in children’s cognitive development. Full article

Purpose: It is not clear whether cognitive functions are impaired in young patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). This study aims to detect whether or not there is cognitive impairment and cerebral changes in young patients with ACS undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Patients and Methods: All 50 patients with ACS who were treated with primary PCI were eligible for this prospective study. All participants had normal cognitive function before ACS. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed to quantify changes in brain white and gray matter. Cognitive functions (CFs) were evaluated by seven cognitive tests. Patients were categorized by MRI findings and test scores were compared from the first day to after the first month. Results: We determined 25 patients with impaired CFs on the first day. After the first month, we identified 18 patients with transient impaired CFs. No structural difference was observed between impaired CF and normal CF. While 25 patients had a score of 1 according to Fazekas, 10 patients had a score of 1 according to MTLA. While the mean Stroop test completion time and Stroop test error rate scores were significantly higher on the first day than after the first month in the Fazekas+ group (p = 0.003, p < 0.001, respectively), other cognitive test scores—except clock drawing test, digital span forwards, and backwards—were significantly lower on the first day compared to after the first month in the Fazekas+ group (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Patients with ACS have transient impairment in cognitive functions. Acute coronary syndrome is not associated with structural changes in the brain. Full article