Search Results (240)

In the Philippines’ agricultural setup, pre-harvest cacao (Theobroma cacao) fruits are wrapped with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) for moisture retention and damage protection. Responding to the growing concern for its waste volume and scarcity of treatment, this research explores the co-hydrothermal carbonization (co-HTC) of cacao shells (CS) and LDPE as a method to convert agricultural waste with plastic into hydrochar for potential energy applications. Thus, observations on the thermal, physicochemical, and morphological changes from feedstocks to hydrochar are carried out. Optimal conditions of 200 °C for 60 min resulted in hydrochar with 21.11 MJ/kg and appreciable thermal properties. SEM micrographs show that hydrochar had increased surface area, a good fuel characteristic, and surface flaking on oversized LDPE film, suggesting relative LDPE degradation. EDX analysis reveals C, K, Ca, and Zn metals that affect chemical pathways. FTIR analysis further supports chemical synergy by preservation of functional groups innate from both parent materials. Kinetic and thermal evolutions are also investigated to reveal the influence of pretreatment on the stability of cacao shell-dominated hydrochar and the effectivity of biomass integration to facilitate relatively easier cracking of LDPE. The findings support co-HTC as a viable technology to enhance the circular economy by valorizing LDPE and cacao shells while promoting energy recovery and solid fuel production. Full article

Cadmium (Cd) accumulation in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) beans represents a significant threat to international food safety standards. This study evaluated the efficacy of microbial inoculants (efficient microorganism, EMs) combined with tropical fruit extracts (Musa × paradisiaca, Artocarpus heterophyllus, and Passiflora edulis) on mitigating Cd levels during cocoa fermentation. During fermentation, all treatments exhibited a progressive increase in pH and temperature, alongside a decline in total soluble solids, reflecting intensified microbial metabolic activity. Cd reduction was found to be dose-dependent on EM concentration and fruit extract, and synergistic effects were shown by EM and fruit extracts. The most effective treatment, i.e., 80% EMs + P. edulis extract, reduced 33.5% Cd levels, i.e., from 3.67 mg/kg to 2.44 mg/kg. Additionally, these biotechnological approaches improved post-harvest cocoa quality, with fermentation levels exceeding 95% for well-fermented beans and reducing defective beans to near zero. In conclusion, directed fermentation using EMs and tropical fruit extracts provides a robust strategy for Cd mitigation and qualitative enhancement of cacao beans. Full article

Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in cacao agroecosystems are characterized by accumulating large amounts. They depend on the balance between organic matter inputs (plant residues, roots) and losses (decomposition, erosion), being closely related to climatic conditions, soil nature, vegetation type, topography, and land management practices. The objective of this study was to quantify SOC stocks (0–30 cm) and assess key soil fertility indicators across 107 georeferenced sampling locations in cacao production systems of Guamal (Meta, Colombian Llanos Piedmont). Soil pH varies between extremely acidic and moderately acidic (3.8–6.0; mean 4.57), while available P (Bray II) and exchangeable bases showed low concentrations. Organic carbon concentration averaged 1.18% and bulk density averaged 1.17 g cm⁻³. SOC stocks averaged 41.10 Mg C ha⁻¹, ranging from 7.49 to 81.55 Mg C ha⁻¹, evidencing marked spatial contrasts in carbon storage. Spearman correlations highlighted coupled soil chemical controls, including positive associations of pH with Ca²⁺ and P availability and strong negative associations of pH and P with exchangeable Al³⁺, consistent with acidity-driven fertility constraints. Principal component analysis (PCA) further identified a dominant fertility gradient structured by pH, P availability, and Ca²⁺, and a second axis related to organic carbon and cation retention. Spatial modeling using inverse distance weighting (IDW) in ArcGIS supported the visualization of SOC stock variability across the study area. Overall, the results indicate that SOC stocks in these predominantly sandy soils are strongly influenced by acidity-related constraints and heterogeneous nutrient status, underscoring the need for site-specific management to jointly enhance soil fertility and climate-mitigation potential in cacao systems. Therefore, it would be advisable in the future to address the study of differential variations in soil C storage related to chemical fertilizer application rates, especially in the long term. Full article

Genetic engineering tools have the potential to rapidly and precisely improve the genome of slow-to-breed cacao. We previously developed an efficient protocol for transforming cacao using cotyledonary explants derived from secondary somatic embryos via Agrobacterium tumefaciens. In this study, we demonstrate that our transformation protocol is successful in elite cultivars, INIAPG-038 and Matina 1-6, producing fertile seeds with stable visual marker inheritance regardless of whether the transgenic plants were used as the pollen or ovule donor. Three vectors were used in the transformations, each containing genes for enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (eyfp) and neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII). Three transgenic INIAPG-038 events and one transgenic Matina 1-6 event were used to evaluate seed fertility and the stability of transgene inheritance in cacao seeds and plants. The T₁ progeny of these four transgenic events were analyzed for YFP expression and transgene presence. YFP expression segregated at a 1:1 ratio in all events when the transgenic plants were crossed with non-transgenic plants, while a 3:1 segregation was observed when transgenic events were crossed with each other. The transgenic plants exhibited a normal phenotype compared to non-transgenic control plants, producing seeds with a 97% germination rate. Full article

The application of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) offers a sustainable alternative for improving cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) health and productivity. This study evaluated the relative growth rate (RGR) of cacao fruits under four field treatments for 30 days: PGPB alone, PGPB plus the pathogen Moniliophthora roreri, the pathogen alone, and an untreated control. Fruits inoculated only with M. roreri exhibited the highest RGR (0.0055 ± 0.002 day⁻¹), significantly higher than the control (0.0030 ± 0.001 day⁻¹; $p\le 0.05$). The combined treatment (PGPB + pathogen) showed intermediate values (0.0050 ± 0.0018 day⁻¹), while PGPB alone presented the lowest RGR (0.0037 ± 0.0014 day⁻¹). These results indicate that pathogen inoculation may lead to transient fruit hypertrophy, while bacterial inoculation alone or in combination moderates this effect. The observed variability among treatments likely reflects the influence of uncontrolled environmental factors (e.g., humidity, temperature, and soil heterogeneity) and natural pathogen presence in the field, which may have masked or modulated the physiological effects of PGPB during the short 30-day observation period. Overall, this work highlights the complexity of plant–microbe–pathogen interactions under field conditions and underscores the need for longer-term, multi-season trials to validate the effectiveness of PGPB-based strategies in cacao agroecosystems. Full article

The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.) is a crop of great economic importance to Brazil and has undergone several breeding processes that, among other things, have made it possible to obtain several self-compatible genotypes, ensuring that there is no genotypic variation in the crop, with the differences observed in the plants being caused only by the environment. For this to continue, the proper and reliable execution of scientific experiments is essential, and quantifying the material needed to carry out these experiments, i.e., the plot size, is an important step. This requires a scientific justification for choosing the plot size. In the literature, various plot sizes are adopted in experiments with seedlings. Therefore, the objective was to determine the optimal plot size for experiments with clonal cacao seedlings. The method adopted was the modified maximum curvature method using a bootstrap resampling simulation with 2000 replacements. The genotypes CCN10, CCN51, CP2204, CP2176, PS1319, and PH16 were evaluated based on 13 morphological characteristics and three quality indices used in morphological characterization studies of seedlings. The optimal plot size for experimentation with cocoa seedlings is nine plants per experimental plot. Full article

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important source of bioactive compounds with high antioxidant capacity and antimicrobial properties. However, these compounds are susceptible to degradation by light, oxygen, pH, and temperature, which limits their functionality. This study evaluated the microencapsulation of CCN-51 cocoa extracts by spray drying, using maltodextrin (MD) and gum arabic (GA) as encapsulating agents, with the aim of preserving their bioactive activity and promoting their application in food. Microcapsules formulated with 5%GA showed the highest encapsulation efficiency (77.5%) and the highest phenolic content (92.7 GAE/g), showing significant differences compared to formulations with MD (p < 0.0001). Antioxidant capacity, quantified using the ABTS method, reached 583.3 µmol TE/g for 5% GA, significantly exceeding that of microcapsules with 10%MD (230.9 µmol TE/g; p < 0.0001). In terms of antimicrobial activity, microcapsules containing 5%MD showed greater inhibition against Escherichia coli (22.1 mm) and Staphylococcus aureus (12.3 mm), while those containing GA recorded halos of 10.1 mm and 12.1 mm. When applied to chicken muscle, treatments with 5%GA significantly reduced microbial growth for 72 h, demonstrating that the prepared microcapsules have high bioactivity, stability, and antimicrobial capacity in samples of meat products that are widely consumed and potentially susceptible to spoilage due to microbial growth. Full article

The cacao tree is naturally adapted to shade; however, cultivation in full-sun systems is becoming increasingly common. However, high light intensity can damage the photosynthetic apparatus, making the choice of genotype fundamental to the success of the crop. Thus, in the north of the state of Espírito Santo, municipality of Linhares, the physiological and biochemical responses of the cacao genotypes PS1319, CEPEC 2002, and PH16 were evaluated in agroforestry, cabruca, and full sun cultivation systems during the months of April to October. To this end, chlorophyll a fluorescence, photosynthetic pigments, and carbohydrates were evaluated using a completely randomized split-plot experimental design. Across agroforestry, cabruca (a traditional Brazilian shaded system), and full-sun systems, the cacao genotypes PH16, PS1319, and CEPEC 2002 did not show limitations in photosynthetic performance, as evidenced by the stable values of PI abs and PI total throughout the evaluation period. The highest quantity of photosynthetic pigments was found in the genotypes CEPEC 2002, PH16, and PS1319 in full sun cultivation, in the genotypes PH16 and PS1319 in the agroforestry system, and in the genotype CEPEC 2002 in the cabruca system. The genotypes PH16 and PS1319 obtained higher levels of glucose, sucrose, and fructose, both in shaded environments (agroforestry and cabruca systems) and in full sun. Therefore, due to their greater stability and adaptability, we recommend the PH16 and PS1319 genotypes for cultivation in agroforestry and full-sun systems, and the CEPEC 2002, PH16, and PS1319 genotypes for the cabruca cultivation system. Full article

This study evaluates the chemical profile and antifungal efficacy of essential oils from Piper glabratum, Piper friedrichsthalii, and Piper cumanense against the cocoa pathogens Moniliophthora roreri and Phytophthora palmivora. Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation followed by GC-MS analysis identified 80 constituents, predominantly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which exhibited significant mycelial inhibition comparable to commercial fungicides. Beyond basic characterization, a comprehensive chemoinformatic analysis was conducted to elucidate the molecular mechanisms driving this bioactivity. The computed physicochemical landscape reveals a dominant lipophilic profile (average LogP 3.4) and low polarity (TPSA 11.5 Ų), characteristics essential for effective fungal membrane penetration. Structural mining identified conserved benzene and cyclohexene scaffolds alongside specific 1,3-benzodioxole moieties, while Maximum Common Substructure (MCS) analysis uncovered high similarity clusters among phenylpropanoids and sesquiterpenes. These findings suggest a synergistic mode of action where conserved structural backbones and interchangeable diastereomers facilitate membrane destabilization and ion leakage. Consequently, the integrative chemoinformatic profiling elucidates the molecular basis of this efficacy, positioning these Piper essential oils not merely as empirical alternatives, but as sources of rationally defined synergistic scaffolds for next-generation sustainable fungicides. Full article

Peru is currently distinguished by its remarkable biodiversity, which is characterized by a high level of endemism and a wide array of ecological niches. In the context of biodiversity, the genus Theobroma spp. is particularly noteworthy, encompassing the species Theobroma cacao, Theobroma grandiflorum and Theobroma bicolor, which are collectively referred to as cacao, cupuaçu, and macambo, respectively. The primary economic value of these species is derived from their mucilage-rich pulp and beans. In recent years, the mucilage of the genus Theobroma has gained economic relevance due to its flavor, floral and fruity aroma. The present review article aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of Theobroma spp. mucilage, addressing its characterization and potential applications. The present study investigates aspects related to its origin, cob morphology, proximal composition, bioactive compounds, volatile profile and its application in the food industry. The study highlights a high content of polysaccharides such as reducing sugars, organic acids, pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, antioxidant capacity, presence of polyphenols and methylxanthines. Through this comprehensive review, a prospective vision is proposed on the opportunities for innovation and sustainable development around the Theobroma mucilage industry, highlighting its relevance not only as a agri-food byproduct, but also as a valuable resource in the productive circular economy and the sustainability of biodiversity. Full article

The response of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) to low oxygen availability in the soil and the possibility of recovery after stress relief are associated with the plasticity capacity of each genotype; however, studies evaluating the influence of rootstock on stress response are scarce. Thus, in the northern region of the state of Espírito Santo, municipality of São Mateus, the physiological, biochemical, and anatomical responses and recovery capacity of cocoa PS-1319 grafted onto the rootstocks TSH-1188, Cepec-2002, Pará, Esfip-02, and SJ-02 were evaluated under flooded conditions. The plants were subjected to flooding for 60 days, and their recovery capacity was assessed after this period. The gas exchange, relative chlorophyll content, stem and leaf anatomy, photosynthetic pigments, and carbohydrates were evaluated. All genotypes showed reductions in net photosynthetic assimilation, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate in the flooded environment compared to the non-flooded environment. All pigments were degraded, with average values of Chl a, Chl b, total Chl, and total carotenoids of 9.33, 10.418, 19.75, and 590.75 μg.mL⁻¹ in the non-flooded environment and 6.43, 7.69, 14.12, and 500.33 μg.mL⁻¹ in the flooded environment. The rootstocks Cepec-2002 and Esfip-02 showed the highest carotenoid accumulation, with 585.78 and 650.47 μg.mL⁻¹, respectively, when compared to SJ-02 (474.03 μg.mL⁻¹), Pará (491.58 μg.mL⁻¹), and TSH-1188 (525.86 491.58 μg.mL⁻¹). The Pará rootstock did not show differences in stomatal density between environments, with values of 32.25 in flooding, 34.83 in non-flooding, and 31.61 in recovery. During flooding, lenticels formed in all rootstocks. After recovery, all rootstocks normalized their gas exchange, carbohydrate levels, and anatomy, showing that the root system was able to re-establish its functions, making these rootstocks suitable for areas at risk of flooding. Full article

Understanding the genetic diversity and structure of regional cacao and its close relatives is essential for strengthening conservation strategies and enhancing the resilience of Amazonian agroforestry systems. This study evaluated the genetic diversity, population structure, and varietal relationships of 48 sexually derived regional accessions of Theobroma cacao, T. grandiflorum, and T. bicolor with desirable morpho-agronomic traits, together with eight universal T. cacao reference clones, all cultivated in farmer-managed agroforests of the northwestern Colombian Amazon, using a panel of 15 SSR markers. The loci exhibited substantial allelic richness (mean Na = 8.53) and consistently high expected heterozygosity (Hexp = 0.74), with numerous private alleles indicating species- and lineage-specific divergence. Bayesian clustering, ΔK inference, and minimum spanning networks identified four genetically coherent subpopulations corresponding to the three species and a distinct lineage within T. cacao, strongly aligned with the discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) results. Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) revealed that most genetic variation occurred among subpopulations (56.68%), while pairwise FST (Wright’s fixation index) values confirmed strong interspecific differentiation and significant divergence within T. cacao. No isolation-by-distance pattern was detected. These findings demonstrate that regional Theobroma germplasm maintained in smallholder agroforests constitutes a valuable reservoir of genetic diversity that complements universal reference clones. By documenting species-level divergence and lineage-specific variation, this study supports the integration of farmer-managed genetic resources into conservation planning and highlights their importance for the long-term resilience of Amazonian cacao-based agroforestry landscapes. Full article

The genus Streptomyces is the largest group within the phylum Actinobacteria, recognized for producing antibiotics and enzymes, with wide applications in medicine and biological control for crop protection against phytopathogens. In this study, the Streptomyces sp. Caat 5-35 strain, isolated from soil of the Caatinga biome in Brazil, and identified by analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, demonstrated its antagonistic effect in vitro in dual cultures against Phytophthora palmivora, Colletotrichum acutatum, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and Fusarium graminearum. Caat 5-35 inhibited mycelial growth ranging from 19% to 73.3%. Compounds purified by prep-HPLC from extracts were identified by spectral data analysis using UHPLC-triple-TOF-MS/MS, or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). This work demonstrated for the first time the anti-oomycete activity of albofungin, its derivatives, and albonoursin against P. palmivora. Moreover, the growth inhibition of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides by albonoursin and the antibacterial effect of 2-chloroadenosine and 5′-O-sulfamoyl-2-chloroadenosine against Pectobacterium carotovorum were demonstrated as novel findings. Caat 5-35 exhibited the ability to solubilize phosphates and produce cellulases on CMC agar. The findings of this study, in combination with in vitro bioassays on cacao pods (Theobroma cacao L.) inoculated with the antagonist strain and P. palmivora APB-35, demonstrate that Streptomyces sp. Caat 5-35 is a source of natural products with applications in agriculture and could serve as an alternative for crop protection. Full article

Preserving Peruvian cacao germplasm requires preventing the spread of pathogens such as viruses, yet cacao viral diseases in Peru remain poorly studied. In this study, we characterized the viral sequences associated with native cacao trees from the department of Amazonas, northwestern Peru. Leaf samples from two symptomatic plants (mosaic, yellowing, leaf deformation) and one asymptomatic plant were collected from the cacao germplasm bank of the Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas. RNA high-throughput sequencing identified four RNA segments consistent with the genus Emaravirus: RNA1 (7142 nt; replicase P1), RNA2 (2225 nt; glycoprotein P2), RNA3 (1269 nt; nucleocapsid P3), and RNA4 (1286 nt; movement protein P4), sharing 32.6–45.9% amino acid identity with European mountain ash ringspot-associated emaravirus (EMARaV). Phylogenetic analysis of P1–P4 proteins placed this virus in a distinct lineage, confirming it as a novel species, Theobroma cacao emaravirus A (ThCEV-A). Specific RT-PCR detected ThCEV-A in 11 additional accessions, with symptoms including yellow mosaic and mottling. This study documents for the first time the presence of a novel Emaravirus in cacao, highlighting the need to assess its epidemiology, vector(s), and potential impact on cacao production in its center of origin. Full article

To improve cocoa fermentation and the quality of its final products, microbial cultures with potential as starters were investigated. Yeasts were considered a promising option due to their adaptability to biotechnological processes and ease of laboratory manipulation. From 185 strains previously isolated from spontaneous cocoa fermentation, those producing protease, amylase, and cellulase were identified. Strain CII87b (Pichia manshurica) exhibited the most favorable results and was evaluated for cytotoxicity using the MTT assay, showing no adverse effects. This culture was subsequently inoculated into freshly harvested cocoa almonds during the secondary (winter) harvest. The inoculum accelerated and increased the average fermentation temperature from 25 to 50 °C, reduced internal mold incidence, decreased defect rates, increased total fermentation, and resulted in a more desirable pH compared to the control. These findings demonstrate that the use of P. manshurica CII87b as a starter culture in winter harvests can improve fermentation efficiency and product quality, offering a biotechnological tool with potential benefits for cocoa producers and the chocolate industry. Full article