Search Results (802)

Background/Objectives: Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) may play a protective role in the progression of heart failure; however, controversial results also exist. This study investigates the association between fasting serum BCAA levels and plasma NT-proBNP concentrations in individuals with fragmented QRS (fQRS) on ECGs within the HOZUGAWA health-checkup cohort in Japan, offering insights into cardiac health. Methods: This analysis included 252 participants who attended health check-ups. Fasting blood samples were analyzed using a standardized laboratory test. Unitless internal-standard-normalized relative peak-area ratios of BCAAs and selected amino-acid-related organic acids were measured and log-transformed for analysis. Results: NT-proBNP levels did not differ significantly between individuals with and without fQRS. Among those with fQRS, higher levels of BCAAs and 2-hydroxybutyric acid (2-HB) were associated with lower NT-proBNP levels: leucine (r = −0.38, p = 0.0001), while valine (r = −0.28, p = 0.0053) and isoleucine (r = −0.21, p = 0.041); 2-HB (r = −0.21, p = 0.039). After adjustment for age, sex, BMI, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) (n = 252), leucine remained inversely associated with NT-proBNP in individuals with fQRS (r = −0.28, p = 0.0072) and positively associated in those without fQRS (r = 0.23, p = 0.0048). fQRS showed an interaction with leucine levels regarding NT-proBNP levels. Conclusions: Associations between relative leucine abundance and NT-proBNP levels varied by fQRS status, with significant inverse associations observed only among participants with fQRS, suggesting that lower relative BCAA abundance may be associated with markers of cardiac dysfunction and that leucine-related metabolic signatures may be linked to NT-proBNP levels in individuals with fQRS. Additional longitudinal and mechanistic studies are necessary to confirm these findings, particularly in individuals with cardiac fibrosis. Further research is warranted to explore therapeutic implications. Full article

Acetolactate synthase (ALS; EC 2.2.1.6) catalyzes the first committed step in branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) biosynthesis and is the molecular target of multiple herbicide classes, including the imidazolinones. Here, we performed a genome-wide characterization of the HaALS gene family in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and investigated genotype-dependent transcriptional responses to imazethapyr. A total of 11 HaALS genes were identified and classified into three phylogenetic clades (Groups A–C). All HaALS proteins contained the conserved TPP_enzyme domains (TPP_enzyme_N, TPP_enzyme_M, and TPP_enzyme_C), and purifying selection (Ka/Ks < 1) indicated strong evolutionary constraint on their core enzymatic function. Promoter analyses revealed abundant cis-regulatory elements associated with diverse stress and signaling inputs, supporting regulatory potential for herbicide-triggered transcriptional modulation. qRT-PCR analysis following imazethapyr application (0, 24, and 48 h) showed pronounced genotype-dependent expression reprogramming between the susceptible (S) and resistant (R) cultivars. In the R genotype, multiple HaALS members were strongly induced after treatment; specifically, HaALS4 reached a ~6-fold increase at 24 h and a >10-fold increase at 48 h, and HaALS11 increased to ~6–7-fold at 24 h while remaining above the baseline at 48 h; several additional paralogs exhibited intermediate induction (~3–8-fold by 48 h). In contrast, the S genotype showed limited changes (typically ~0.8–2-fold). Collectively, these findings define the evolutionary features of the sunflower HaALS family and identify herbicide-responsive paralogs that may contribute to imidazolinone tolerance, providing candidates for functional validation and molecular breeding. Full article

Background: Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is a clinically heterogeneous disorder often leading to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Prognostication of disease progression remains a major clinical challenge. This study aimed to identify plasma amino acid signatures associated with ADPKD progression and hypertension. Methods: We conducted targeted metabolomic analysis (LC-MS/MS) to quantify 38 plasma amino acids in 203 ADPKD patients, stratified by disease progression (rapid vs. slow) and hypertension status. Support Vector Machine (SVM) models were developed to predict outcomes using clinical data, amino acid profiles, and combined datasets. Results: Our findings revealed that specific amino acid signatures, including valine, glutamic acid, homocitrulline, and methylhistidines, were significantly elevated in both rapid progression and hypertensive groups. Isoleucine and citrulline were elevated only in rapid progressors. Phenylalanine, leucine, asparagine, and arginine were elevated in hypertensive patients. Machine learning analysis showed that integrating clinical and metabolic data modestly improved prediction for progression and hypertension. Proteinuria, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and uric acid were the top clinical predictors; however, adding arginine, isoleucine, and 3-methylhistidine further enhanced prediction accuracy. Pathway analysis showed shared dysregulation in arginine biosynthesis and branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism. Specific amino acids were positively correlated with creatinine and uric acid and negatively correlated with GFR, and elevated levels of these metabolites were associated with increased mortality risk in survival analysis. Conclusions: Our results suggest that these plasma amino acid signatures, when combined with clinical markers, may serve as potential biomarkers for early risk stratification and precision prediction of ADPKD progression and hypertension. Full article

Objective: Maternal blood microbiome signatures during pregnancy have been linked to adverse birth outcomes. We conducted a pilot study to examine whether they are also associated with early childhood growth in offspring and to explore maternal metabolites as potential mediators of these relationships. Methods: This study included 50 mother-child dyads from a prospective pregnancy cohort. Children were selected based on distinct body mass index (BMI) growth trajectories from birth to 4 years, including 25 children in a rising-high-BMI trajectory and 25 in a low-BMI trajectory. Maternal plasma collected during the second trimester underwent 16S rRNA gene sequencing for microbial profiling and an untargeted metabolomics analysis. Microbial diversity indices were compared between groups. Multivariable logistic regression models assessed associations between microbial taxa and BMI trajectories with adjustment for covariates. Mediation analyses evaluated whether maternal metabolites mediated observed associations. Results: Higher maternal blood microbial α-diversity was observed among mothers of children in the rising-high-BMI trajectory. Greater abundance of Gammaproteobacteria/Proteobacteria (class/phylum) was associated with lower odds of membership in the rising-high-BMI trajectory, whereas Bacteroidia/Bacteroidota and Actinobacteria/Actinobacteriota were associated with a greater risk. Mediation analyses identified several maternal metabolites that potentially linked prenatal microbial taxa to child growth outcomes. Key mediators included metabolites involved in benzoate metabolism (e.g., 4-vinylphenol sulfate for taxa Gammaproteobacteria/Proteobacteria), lipid metabolism (e.g., 1-linoleoyl-GPG (18:2) for Bacteroidia/Bacteroidota), glutathione metabolism (cysteinylglycine disulfide for Bacteroidia/Bacteroidota), branched-chain amino acid metabolism (3-hydroxy-2-ethylpropionate for Bacteroidia/Bacteroidota), histidine metabolism (imidazole propionate for Actinobacteria/Actinobacteriota), and TCA cycle (glutaconate for Actinobacteria/Actinobacteriota). These pathways are implicated in oxidative stress, adipocyte differentiation, insulin signaling, and energy metabolism, processes that are highly relevant to obesity development. Conclusion: Findings suggest that prenatal blood microbial signatures may influence early childhood growth through metabolic pathways related to obesity. These pilot study findings support further investigation into the role of prenatal blood microbial signatures in child development and health outcome prediction in larger studies. Full article

Evidence from clinical trials indicates that dietary protein plays an important and often underappreciated role in lipoprotein lipid metabolism. For this narrative review, literature searches were conducted in the PubMed and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases for articles describing randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews and meta-analyses of RCTs, as well as dietary guidelines and dyslipidemia management recommendations, using search terms for protein quantity, source (e.g., animal- and plant-based), and type (e.g., dairy, meat, soy, and nuts) and effects on lipids and lipoproteins in humans. Findings indicated that dietary intakes of both animal-based and plant-based proteins, when replacing refined carbohydrates or saturated fatty acids, lower circulating concentrations of atherogenic lipoproteins. Protein from plant sources appears to produce a somewhat larger effect on lipoprotein lipid concentrations than protein from animal sources. Individual amino acids (e.g., branched-chain amino acids), protein food fractions (e.g., whey), and food-derived peptides may independently impact lipoprotein lipid metabolism. Beyond the effect of replacing one macronutrient for another, the biochemical pathways responsible for the effects of dietary protein on lipoprotein lipid metabolism in humans have not been fully defined. The importance of dietary protein in a healthy diet is emphasized in recent dietary recommendations for the general population and for individuals with dyslipidemias. Additional research is warranted to determine the amount of dietary protein and the best balance of food source(s) to optimize its benefits on lipoprotein lipid concentrations, as well as the mechanisms for these effects. Full article

Pixian Doubanjiang (PXDB) is a traditional Chinese fermented condiment whose characteristic aroma and taste are strongly influenced by fermentation conditions. This study aimed to systematically compare the flavor profiles of PXDB produced via traditional open fermentation (TOF) and industrial closed fermentation (ICF), aiming to elucidate the chemical basis of sensory divergence and provide scientific support for industrial process optimization. In this study, PXDB samples were evaluated using sensory evaluation, GC-IMS, ¹H-NMR metabolomics, and multivariate statistical analysis. Sensory evaluation revealed that ICF exhibited a stronger soy sauce-like aroma, alcohol note, and umami intensity, whereas TOF and ICF showed comparable sweetness, sourness, chili-like aroma, and roasted aroma. GC-IMS putatively identified 126 volatile compounds, and multivariate analyses demonstrated a clear separation between the two fermentation modes. Based on combined criteria of VIP > 1, FDR-adjusted p < 0.05, and |fold change| > 2, 35 differential volatile compounds were identified. ICF was characterized by higher levels of esters, particularly ethyl esters, and selected ketones, while TOF showed enrichment of higher alcohols, terpenes, and sulfur compounds. ¹H-NMR analysis identified 54 non-volatile metabolites, of which 16 differed significantly between TOF and ICF, mainly involving amino acids, organic acids, and carbohydrates. Pathway analysis highlighted branched-chain amino acid and glutamate-related metabolism as key contributors to flavor divergence. Correlation analysis further revealed that soy sauce-like aroma and umami perception were strongly associated with amino acid-derived metabolites, esters, sulfur-containing compounds, and branched-chain aldehydes, highlighting the coordinated contribution of volatile and non-volatile compounds to flavor differentiation. Overall, fermentation mode was found to reshape PXDB flavor through coordinated modulation of volatile and non-volatile metabolism, providing experimental insight for improving industrial fermentation quality. Full article

Production system may affect meat quality and muscle metabolic characteristics in Tibetan sheep. In this study, the biceps femoris muscles of twelve 3-year-old Tibetan sheep with similar body weights were used as experimental materials during a 6-month experimental period. The housed group (n = 6) was defined as the control group (C group), whereas the grazing group (n = 6) was defined as the L group. Meat quality measurement, nutritional composition analysis, untargeted lipidomics, and amino acid metabolomics (AAM) were integrated to investigate the effects of contrasting grazing and house-feeding production systems on meat quality and metabolic characteristics in Tibetan sheep. The results showed that cooking loss and drip loss were significantly decreased, whereas water-holding capacity (WHC) was significantly increased in the L group. However, shear force was also increased, indicating that grazing and house-feeding systems were associated with differences in muscle WHC and shear force. The L group exhibited significant alterations in lipid composition and increased concentrations of several n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and increased levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), including α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), suggesting that grazing and house-feeding systems were associated with differences in the lipid nutritional profile of muscle. Lipidomic analysis showed that the differential lipids were mainly enriched in triacylglycerols (TGs), phosphatidylethanolamines (PEs), and phosphatidylcholines (PCs), and several PUFA-containing TGs and membrane lipid molecules were closely associated with meat quality traits. AAM analysis showed that branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), including L-leucine and L-valine, as well as N,N-dimethylglycine, were upregulated in the L group, whereas kynurenine and 1-methyl-L-histidine were downregulated. These findings suggest that BCAA metabolism and tryptophan–kynurenine metabolism were associated with metabolic differences observed between production systems in muscle metabolic adaptation. However, amino acid metabolomics analysis revealed that no amino acid metabolites remained significant after FDR correction, and thus the observed pathway-level changes (e.g., BCAA metabolism and tryptophan–kynurenine pathway) should be interpreted as nominal and exploratory findings. Overall, the results indicate that feeding systems were associated with alterations in the lipid and amino acid metabolic profiles of the biceps femoris muscle in Tibetan sheep, which were further associated with differences in muscle WHC, shear force, lipid nutritional composition, and the profile of flavor precursors. This study provides a theoretical basis for optimizing plateau meat sheep production systems and developing high-quality Tibetan sheep meat products. Full article

Although the hearts of large animals are known to exhibit regional heterogeneity in structure, function, and metabolism, their spatial patterns of gene expression remain poorly understood. Therefore, we investigated regional differences in gene expression across six anatomical regions of the bovine heart, including the atria, ventricles, interventricular septum, and apex (n = 3). The expression levels of genes related to cardiac development, structure, and branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR, and multivariate patterns were evaluated using principal component analysis (PCA). Histological analysis suggested no apparent structural differences among the examined regions. NKX2.5 expression showed no significant regional variation, suggesting conserved cardiomyocyte identity. Conversely, contractile genes (MYH7, MYL2, TNNI3, and TNNT2) and the BCAA metabolism-related gene BCKDHA were significantly more highly expressed in the ventricular myocardium than in the atrial regions. PCA clearly distinguished between the atrial and ventricular myocardium and indicated coordinated variations in contractile and metabolic gene expression. These findings of region-specific molecular heterogeneity in the bovine heart, characterized by regional differences in gene expression across the myocardium rather than morphological differences, provide new insights into the spatial regulation of cardiac function and highlight the value of the bovine heart as a model for studying myocardial specialization. Full article

Background: Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) regulate muscle protein metabolism, yet the systematic characterization of their dose-dependent morphological effects on exercised skeletal muscle remains limited. This study investigated the dose–response relationship between BCAA supplementation and skeletal muscle adaptations in exercise-trained mice. Methods: Seventy male Kunming mice were randomly assigned to seven groups (n = 10): a background group (no exercise), a control group (exercise + saline), and five exercise groups receiving BCAAs at 1–5 g/kg/day via intragastric gavage. Mice in the exercise groups performed 45 min of swimming daily (6 days/week) for 50 days. Gastrocnemius muscles were processed using hematoxylin–eosin staining, Masson trichrome staining, Gomori aldehyde fuchsin staining, and transmission electron microscopy. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post hoc test. Results: BCAA supplementation increased gastrocnemius wet weight-to-body weight ratios and promoted denser fiber packing in a dose-dependent manner up to 3–4 g/kg/day. Deep-staining fiber proportion (putatively type II-like) increased progressively with BCAA concentration, plateauing at doses ≥ 3 g/kg/day, while elastic fiber content continued to rise through 5 g/kg/day. Mitochondrial size decreased as mitochondrial number increased; membrane and cristae thickness peaked at 3 g/kg/day. Sarcomere length, myofibril diameter, sarcoplasmic reticulum size, and transverse tubule diameter exhibited increasing trends. Conclusions: These findings establish a parameter-specific dose–response framework for BCAA-induced muscle remodeling. A supplemental dose of 3 g/kg/day above background dietary intake represents an effective threshold for maximizing indices of hypertrophic gains and mitochondrial structural maturation potentially indicative of functional enhancement. Higher doses (≥4 g/kg/day) elicited additional benefits in fiber density, mitochondrial proliferation, and elastic fiber content. Supplemental BCAA dosing strategies above constant background intake should be tailored to target specific structural outcomes, with functional validation required to confirm physiological relevance. Full article

Amino acid metabolism has been increasingly recognized as a central determinant of obesity and insulin resistance, yet the specific contributions of individual amino acids require further clarification. The aim of the study was to detect relationships between serum amino acid concentrations and metabolic parameters in overweight and obese individuals. Amino acid concentrations were measured in 50 individuals classified as normal weight, overweight, or obese, and were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA), K-means clustering, multiple linear regression, and Random Forest models. Obese individuals exhibited markedly elevated levels of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs: valine, isoleucine, leucine) and glutamic acid, accompanied by reduced concentrations of serine, glycine, and glutamine, compared with normal weight participants. PCA revealed that the first component, which explained 35.5% of the total variance, was driven primarily by BCAAs, serine, and glutamine, while the second component, accounting for 9.5% of variance, was influenced by threonine, tryptophan, and asparagine. The multiple linear regression model explained 89.6% of the variance in HOMA-IR (R² = 0.896, p < 0.001), with isoleucine emerging as the strongest positive predictor (p < 0.001), valine and leucine showing additional significant associations (p = 0.035), and tyrosine demonstrating a significant negative association (p = 0.039), while proline was not significant. The Random Forest model predicting insulin resistance achieved robust cross-validated performance (R² = 0.86 ± 0.06), with valine, isoleucine, and leucine accounting for the majority of predictive importance, followed by tyrosine and glutamine. Together, these findings demonstrate that amino acid profiling provides powerful discriminatory and predictive capacity for insulin resistance and obesity. BCAAs consistently emerged as the most important predictors across complementary analytical frameworks, confirming their central role in metabolic dysregulation, while glycine appeared to exert a potential protective effect. The identification of a metabolically overweight subgroup underscores the heterogeneity of the overweight state and highlights the utility of amino acid profiling for early risk stratification and the development of targeted interventions. Full article

The escalating crisis of herbicide-resistant weeds threatens global wheat production. While key mutations are well-documented in weeds, the principles governing their interactions in wheat remain largely unknown. Here, we first developed a novel wheat germplasm carrying the acetolactate synthase (TaALS) Ser-627-Asn (S627N) mutation via ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenesis. We then employed a computational design strategy to explore its synergy with the prevalent Trp-548-Leu (W548L) mutation—a combination not yet reported in nature. Integrated molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and free energy landscape analysis revealed that the in silico W548L/S627N double mutant triggers synergistic global destabilization of the herbicide–enzyme complex. Binding affinity progressively weakened from wild-type (−25.54 ± 2.05 kcal/mol) to the double mutant (−18.13 ± 2.76 kcal/mol), driven by a polarity inversion at the Arg-347 anchor. Comparative transcriptomic profiling of the S627N germplasm confirmed the absence of deleterious metabolic feedback in the branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis pathway. This work exemplifies a paradigm shift from mimicking natural variation to predictive crop design via multiplex gene editing. Full article

Microplastics pose a growing threat to marine ecosystems as they can accumulate in aquatic organisms, interfering with essential physiological processes including reproduction. This study analyzed the effects of short-term exposure (48 h) to two concentrations (0.5 and 1 µg/mL) of 5 µm diameter polystyrene microplastic bead particles in female Mytilus galloprovincialis mussels, a bioindicator species of the Mediterranean Sea. Histological analyses revealed progressive oocyte degeneration and the development of hypertrophic PAS-positive mucous cells, indicative of a stress response, in a dose-dependent manner. Changes in hemocyte classes, which are major effectors of bivalve immunity, were evidenced by the May–Grünwald Giemsa reaction. Biochemical data showed that microplastics increased levels of stress proteins, such as HSP70 and p53, and altered the composition of ovarian glycoproteins. Metabolomic analysis based on ¹H NMR spectrometry revealed significant alterations in metabolites involved in energy (glucose, glycogen, and malonate) and amino acid (branched-chain amino acids arginine, glycine, glutamate, histidine, betaine, and choline) metabolism, suggesting impairment to bioenergetic and antioxidant pathways. Overall, these results suggest that even short-term exposure to polystyrene microplastic beads can alter the ovarian function and metabolism of female M. galloprovincialis, highlighting their vulnerability. Full article

Background/Objectives: Direct-fed microbials (DFMs) are widely used in dairy calves to improve gut health and mitigate neonatal disorders, yet their systemic metabolic effects remain poorly defined. This study evaluated the impact of DFM supplementation on the plasma metabolome of pre-weaned dairy calves using untargeted liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). Methods: Eighty-six Holstein bull calves (2 to 5 days old) were assigned to one of four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial randomized complete block design: Lactobacillus plantarum in starter (CLP), a culture mix of Bifidobacterium animalis and Lactobacillus animalis in milk replacer (BBCM), and a combination of both (CMLP), or no supplementation (CON). Blood samples collected on days 0 and 56 were subjected to metabolomic profiling, and metabolites were annotated using Human Metabolome Database and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes databases. Results: A total of 231 plasma metabolites were detected. Compared with CON, 24 metabolites were differentially abundant in DFM-treated calves (fold change ≥ 1.2 or ≤ 0.83; p ≤ 0.05). Supplemented calves exhibited increased abundances of ketone functional groups, aldehydes and amino acid-related metabolites. Metabolite set enrichment analysis identified 11 significantly enriched pathways. Branched-chain amino acid degradation pathways (valine, leucine, and isoleucine) were enriched in CLP and CMLP calves, whereas carbohydrate metabolism pathways, including pentose and glucuronate interconversions, were enriched in the CLP and BBCM groups. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that DFM supplementation modulates systemic metabolism in dairy calves, particularly pathways involved in amino acid and carbohydrate utilization, suggesting enhanced metabolic efficiency during early life. Full article

Driven by increasingly severe drought stress associated with global warming, this study investigated a synthetic microbial community, SynCom-SASW01, with strong stress tolerance and plant growth-promoting potential, and systematically elucidated its mechanisms for enhancing drought resistance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Dual-site field trials demonstrated that SynCom-SASW01 significantly alleviated drought-induced growth suppression, increasing grain yields by 10.42% and 8.52% at the Hohhot and Hulunbuir sites, respectively. This improvement was primarily associated with increased effective tiller number and enhanced root vigor. Physiologically, inoculation promoted root proline and glutathione accumulation and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase, thereby reducing malondialdehyde levels. Environmental analyses showed that the consortium established rhizosphere “micro-reservoirs” through exopolysaccharide secretion, improving soil relative water content and the availability of alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen and phosphorus. High-throughput sequencing revealed that SynCom-SASW01 reshaped the endosphere microbiome through early colonization priority effects, selectively enriching beneficial taxa such as Pseudomonas. Functional prediction indicated upregulated branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis, promoting osmotic adjustment and redox homeostasis. These findings provide a microbiome-based strategy for stabilizing wheat productivity in arid regions. Full article

Leucine, an essential branched-chain amino acid, serves not only as a substrate for protein synthesis but also as a key regulator of placental function and fetal development. This study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with RP-Leu during late gestation on placental development and offspring performance in Hu sheep. Sixty twin-pregnant ewes at day 80 of pregnancy were randomly assigned to either a control group (fed a basal diet) or an RP-Leu group (fed a basal diet supplemented with 19 g/day RP-Leu). The feeding trial lasted for 60 d. The ewes were slaughtered at day 140 of gestation. Maternal slaughter traits and fetal organ weights were recorded. Blood and milk samples were collected for milk composition analysis and targeted metabolomic profiling. Leucine supplementation significantly increased the percentage of milk fat content, total solid content, and the birth weight of lambs (p < 0.05). Improvements in placental morphology and antioxidant capacity were observed, including a significant increase in cotyledon density and a significant enhancement of catalase (CAT) activity (p < 0.05). Gene expression analysis indicated that the NOS3, SLC38A1 and FABP4 genes in the placental cotyledons (p < 0.05), and the VEGFA, NOS3, SLC27A1 and FABP4 genes were significantly upregulated in the maternal caruncles (p < 0.05). Plasma metabolomic profiling revealed increased L-glutamic acid levels and alterations in several amino acids, with pathway enrichment indicating involvement in amino acid metabolism and membrane transport processes. Transcriptomic analysis identified 739 differentially expressed genes, which were mainly enriched in the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, ECM–receptor interaction pathway, and cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction pathway. Collectively, these findings suggest that RP-Leu supplementation during late gestation may enhance offspring growth by modulating amino acid metabolism, promoting placental development, and improving placental nutrient transport capacity, thereby supporting fetal growth and development. Full article