Search Results (343)

Objectives: Traumatic fractures represent a considerable burden to military personnel across nations. Despite substantial research examining traumatic fracture incidence and risk factors, there is no comprehensive synthesis of evidence on traumatic bone fractures in military populations. This study aimed to identify and synthesise findings from studies reporting on the incidence of, and risk factors for, traumatic fractures in military personnel. Design: Systematic review. Methods: A structured search was performed in PubMed, EBSCO, CINAHL, and ProQuest using key terms related to fractures, occupational exposure, and risk. Eligible studies were screened, and key findings including risk factors, incidence rates, and effect sizes were systematically extracted and summarised. Results: Twenty-nine studies were included, with four studies reporting on recruits/trainees and 25 on qualified personnel. Recruit incidence ranged from 21.8 to 105.3 fractures per 1000 person-years, while the incidence in qualified personnel ranged from 1.9 to 57.6 fractures per 1000 person-years. Enlisted personnel, younger servicemembers (18–29 years), and personnel of the Army and Marine Corps branches were at increased risk. Traumatic fractures predominantly occurred in the lower extremities. Risk factors and mechanisms for traumatic fractures in military personnel included sports participation and physical training. Other common mechanisms included motor vehicle accidents and collisions, and (in combat settings) blasts from improvised explosive devices and gunshot wounds. Conclusions: Traumatic fractures are a substantial source of injury across military careers, not limited to initial training. Army and Marine Corps personnel face higher fracture risks, particularly in the lower limbs, with sports/physical training and combat-related risk factors associated with increased susceptibility. Full article

On behalf of the Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), we are pleased to present the abstracts submitted for the SCS 8th Annual Meeting. The event was held at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in Oslo, Norway, on 8–10 October 2025, and comprised several invited sessions held by international and national speakers on a variety of topics related to biochemistry and exercise physiology, strength and conditioning practices and their application to health, injury prevention, and sports performance. These included strength training in high-performance sports, sport science and training–competition load management in elite environments, biochemistry and exercise physiology and prescription, nutrition and biomechanics, among others. The conference also included practical workshops held by renowned academics and practitioners on eccentric training, change of direction ability, and strength and power training in professional team sports, combat sports, and ergospirometry and exercise prescription in specific populations. Finally, the event disseminated up-to-date strength and conditioning research by providing practitioners and researchers with the opportunity to present their most recent findings. All abstracts presented at the SCS 8th Annual Meeting can be found in this Conference Report. Full article

Background: Visio-spatial skills (VSS) are essential perceptual-cognitive skills that enable athletes to process visual information, interpret spatial relationships, and execute appropriate motor responses in dynamic sporting environments. In combat sports, athletes must rapidly anticipate and react to an opponent’s actions, making well-developed VSS crucial for optimal performance. Although boxing, karate, and taekwondo share similar competitive characteristics, each discipline presents distinct technical and perceptual demands that may influence the development of specific VSS profiles. This study aimed to investigate whether significant differences exist in VSS profiles among boxing, karate, and taekwondo athletes. Methods: A comparative cross-sectional design was used involving 150 amateur combat sport athletes, 50 boxers, 50 karate athletes, and 50 taekwondo athletes. Participants were assessed using a VSS test battery measuring six variables: accommodation facility (AF), saccadic eye movement (SEM), speed of recognition (SR), (HEC), peripheral awareness (PA), and visual memory (VM). Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA with η², ω², and Cohen’s f effect sizes, and principal component analysis (PCA). Results: One-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences in five of six VSS (all p < 0.001). PA produced the largest sport-specific differentiation (η² = 0.457, Cohen’s f = 0.918), followed by HEC (η² = 0.273, f = 0.612), SR (η² = 0.224, f = 0.537), and SEM (η² = 0.180, f = 0.468). AF yielded a significant moderate effect (η² = 0.108, f = 0.347). VM was the sole non-significant variable (F (2.147) = 0.74, p = 0.479, ω² = 0.000), suggesting domain-general encoding processes insensitive to discipline-specific training at this developmental level. Boxing athletes achieved the highest scores in SEM, SR, and PA, while karate athletes led in AF and HEC. PCA revealed a single dominant component (PC1 = 93.91% of variance), confirming that VSS function as a highly integrated perceptual-motor construct rather than independent sub-skills. Conclusions: Visio-spatial skills in combat sports are governed by a dominant integrated factor, with discipline-specific variations reflecting unique performance requirements. Visio-spatial skills in combat sport athletes are highly interdependent and largely governed by a single perceptual-motor construct, with discipline-specific profiles observed across boxing, karate, and taekwondo. The findings support the integration of sport-specific, ecologically valid visual training programs targeting key perceptual-cognitive skills, alongside routine assessment to inform athlete development and performance optimization. Full article

Punch impact power is crucial for boxing performance and varies with punch biomechanics. Straight punches rely primarily on linear force production, whereas Hook punches depend more on rotational and lateral force generation; however, the effectiveness of strength and conditioning (S&C) interventions remains insufficiently explored. This study investigated the effects of targeted S&C programs on Straight and Hook punch impact power in trained boxers compared with regular boxing training. Thirty-one boxers completed an eight-week intervention and were allocated to three groups: a Linear-Oriented Training Group (LOTG), a Rotational-Oriented Training Group (ROTG), or a Control Group (CG). Punch impact power (Jab, Cross, Lead Hook, and Rear Hook) was assessed using PowerKube at baseline and post-intervention. One-repetition maximum bench press (1 RM BP), countermovement jump (CMJ), and handgrip strength (HS) were also evaluated. Data were analyzed using mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA on post–pre change scores (Δ). A significant main effect of time was observed for all punch types (p < 0.001), with significant group × time interactions for the Cross, Lead Hook, and Rear Hook (p < 0.05). The ROTG showed the greatest improvements, particularly in Hook punches. Targeted S&C interventions, particularly rotational training, improved punching impact power and neuromuscular performance. Full article

Background: Ancient depictions of Pankration techniques have traditionally been interpreted through qualitative comparison with modern combat sports, without systematic biomechanical evaluation. The present study examines whether postural configurations derived from archeological artifacts are geometrically compatible with a continuous sagittal-plane trajectory under constrained inverse kinematics. Methods: A reduced planar humanoid model with three active rotational degrees of freedom was implemented in MATLAB Simulink(2024b), and artifact-derived initial and terminal postures were treated as boundary conditions. An analytical inverse kinematics solution was used to generate a continuous end-effector trajectory, from which joint kinematics and center-of-gravity displacement were computed. Motion capture data from ten participants were used solely to assess whether the generated trajectory is physically executable within human joint limits. Results: The results demonstrated strong agreement in selected local horizontal joint trajectories, while larger discrepancies were observed in vertical motion and global center-of-gravity behavior, reflecting the limitations of the reduced model. Conclusions: The study provides a reproducible framework for evaluating the kinematic feasibility of artifact-derived movements under explicitly defined constraints, limited to the assessment of geometric compatibility and physical executability. Full article

Judo, as a weight-category combat sport, exposes young athletes to body mass pressures that may foster abnormal eating behaviours. Building on a companion study that documented the prevalence and sex-specific characteristics of abnormal eating behaviours in this cohort, this secondary analysis aimed to identify training-related predictors of eating behaviours in young Polish judo athletes, examine body image satisfaction as a mediator, and assess whether patterns observed in elite adult athletes apply to younger populations. The participants were 150 athletes (70 girls, 80 boys) aged 12–17. Eating behaviours were assessed using the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-13) and the Test of Eating Situation Style (TSJ); training characteristics, pre-competition weight control, and appearance satisfaction were examined through hierarchical regression, mediation analysis, latent profile analysis, and two-way ANOVA. Training-related factors—including tenure, session frequency, competitive level, and pre-competition weight control—showed no significant associations with eating behaviours. However, in a subsample of N = 136 athletes, relative weight grouping predicted dietary restraint (p = 0.015, η²p = 0.066), with athletes in the heaviest tertile reporting higher restriction; lower appearance satisfaction was associated with greater restraint (p = 0.031, β = −0.192), independently of sport-mandated weight control; females demonstrated higher emotional eating across instruments (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that body image and weight classification may be more strongly associated with eating behaviours than training demands, highlighting the need for body image interventions and the monitoring of athletes near weight category boundaries. Full article

Objectives: Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) has been explored for its potential to improve performance in combat sports. This part II of the systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the acute effects of PAPE protocols on sport-specific performance outcomes and evaluated the influence of moderating variables, specifically competitive level and training experience. Methods: A PRISMA-guided search (2010–2024) identified 13 studies examining PAPE in combat sports athletes. Inclusion criteria required human trials using defined PAPE protocols and evaluating sport-specific tests, primarily the Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKT-10) and the Taekwondo-Specific Agility Test (TSAT). A random-effects meta-analysis (Hedges’ g) was conducted on data from 176 athletes. Results: The meta-analysis revealed a profound moderating effect of training status on PAPE responsiveness. For the FSKT-10, amateur athletes demonstrated large, significant improvements (g = 1.28, p < 0.001), whereas elite athletes showed trivial, non-significant changes (g = 0.11, p = 0.357). Similarly, athletes with <6 years of training experience exhibited substantially larger enhancements in both FSKT-10 (g = 1.60) and TSAT agility (g = −1.64) compared to their more experienced (>6 years) counterparts (g = 0.42 and g = −0.65, respectively). Furthermore, dynamic and biomechanically specific conditioning activities (e.g., repeated high-intensity techniques) were most effective at driving sport-specific potentiation. Conclusions: PAPE protocols may enhance acute sport-specific performance when utilizing dynamic, highly specific conditioning activities. However, a possible “ceiling effect” may blunt this potentiation in elite and highly experienced athletes, suggesting a potential need for highly individualized priming strategies at the top competitive levels, specifically in taekwondo. Full article

Surface electromyography (sEMG) signals are important for assessing muscle activity, neuromuscular behavior, and movement stability. sEMG signals are widely used in athlete performance monitoring and human–machine interface applications. However, existing methods have limitations in classification, accuracy and generalization across users. In this study, a real-world dataset was generated from 30 professional wrestlers using an 8-channel system based on 10 physical movements and technical elements. Nine time-domain and energy features, mean absolute value (MAV), integrated EMG (IEMG), root mean square (RMS), simple square integral (SSI), fourth power (4POW), wavelength (WL), difference absolute standard deviation (DASDV), variance (VAR), and average amplitude change (AAC), were systematically evaluated separately and in combination. Five classifiers were compared: Logistic Regression (LR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF), k-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), and Neural Networks (NNs). The models were evaluated for accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and F1-score. The generalization ability was analyzed through cross-subject (24/6) and cross-session validation protocols. The nine feature combinations achieved the highest classification accuracy of 97.8% with the RF algorithm. The proposed approach can serve as a practical basis for real-time muscle activity monitoring, movement classification, and rehabilitation systems. Full article

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is widely used to enhance aerobic performance in combat sports, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying training adaptation remain unclear. This study investigated whether changes in circulating myokine–adipokine profiles are associated with aerobic performance adaptation following sport-specific HIIT in trained combat athletes. Forty elite male kickboxers were randomly assigned to a HIIT group (n = 20) or a control group (n = 20). The HIIT group performed an eight-week sport-specific HIIT program in addition to regular training, whereas the control group maintained their usual training routines. Aerobic capacity was assessed using maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max). Fasting blood samples were collected before and after the intervention to determine circulating apelin, irisin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), myostatin, fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), and adiponectin concentrations. VO₂max increased significantly in the HIIT group compared with the control group (+2.10 ± 1.10 vs. +0.35 ± 0.80 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, p = 0.001). In addition, apelin, irisin, BDNF, FGF21, and adiponectin increased, whereas myostatin decreased following the intervention. Changes in myostatin were negatively correlated with improvements in VO₂max (r = −0.55, p = 0.007), suggesting that reductions in myostatin may serve as a molecular indicator of aerobic adaptation in combat athletes. Full article

Understanding how anthropometric characteristics influence internal load during boxing remains limited, despite heart rate (HR) being a key indicator of exercise intensity. This study examined the relationship between anthropometry and HR responses during three boxing-specific exercises—shadowboxing, pad work, and heavy bag work—in 39 male practitioners (29.0 ± 2.3 years). Body height (BH), body mass (BM), and body mass index (BMI) were assessed. HR_peak and HR_mean were recorded using a validated chest-strap monitor (Polar H10). Significant positive correlations were observed between BH, BM, BMI, and HR responses across all modalities, with the strongest associations during heavy bag work (e.g., HR_peak: BH r = 0.658, BM r = 0.681, BMI r = 0.677; all p < 0.001). Regression analyses indicated that BH explained 23–36% of HR variance during shadowboxing and pad work, whereas BM and BMI showed greater predictive capacity during heavy bag work, explaining up to 46% of HR_peak variance. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant differences between modalities, with heavy bag work eliciting the highest intensities (p < 0.001). These findings demonstrate that greater anthropometric dimensions are associated with higher cardiovascular responses, supporting individualized training prescriptions based on morphological characteristics. Full article

Instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) enable in vivo monitoring of head-impact exposure by reporting event-level peak linear acceleration (PLA) and peak angular acceleration (PAA) in contact sports. This case study describes head impacts in a world-class Muay Thai fighter during routine sparring sessions over a two-week period leading into a competitive bout. Seven sparring sessions were monitored using an iMG (PROTeQT, HitIQ), and only manufacturer (in-mouth)-flagged events above the device’s 8 g trigger threshold were analyzed. Event-level data were exported from the manufacturer portal; raw time-series signals and proprietary signal-processing parameters were not accessible, and no independent video verification was performed. Across the camp, 590 impacts were recorded. Mean PLA values were modest across sessions (7.6 to 19.5 g), with one event exceeding 106 g (max PLA 162.2 g). In contrast, PAA exhibited greater variability, with multiple device-flagged events exceeding 7900 rad/s², particularly in Sessions 4, 6, and 7, where maximum PAA values reached 19,862 to 26,850 rad/s². Overall, these data indicate that sparring was predominantly low in translational loading, while occasionally producing high recorded rotational peaks. Because outputs are device- and processing-pipeline-specific and were not independently verified, threshold-based severity banding and extreme peaks should be interpreted cautiously. This case demonstrates the potential utility of iMG monitoring to characterize session-to-session variability in sparring exposure and to inform practical sparring load management strategies aimed at reducing cumulative head-impact burden. Full article

Background/Objectives: Combat sports are characterised by successive high-intensity and short-duration episodes (rounds) interspersed with short rest periods (intermittent nature). Athletes’ body composition and dietary intake are closely related to physiological demands, and they are determining factors in athletic performance. The aim of this systematic review was to describe the body composition, dietary intake, and food habits of male and female combat sports athletes, and to verify whether they met nutritional recommendations. Methods: A search was performed in the PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases following the PRISMA statement. The timeframe for the search included studies from the year 2000 until 2 February 2026. Risk of bias was assessed using the STROBE and the Newcastle–Ottawa checklists. Initially, 328 documents were identified. The research focused on amateur, semi-professional, or professional athletes in boxing, karate, kickboxing, jiu-jitsu, taekwondo, judo, muay thai, and mixed martial arts (MMA). Results: After screening, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Most of the athletes, both men and women, had normal body mass indices (BMIs), with low or normal fat percentages and adequate muscle mass during both reference and pre-competitive periods. Regarding dietary intake, most of the athletes, male and female, had energy and carbohydrate intakes below official recommendations. Energy and nutrient intake decreased during pre-competition periods as a strategy for achieving pre-competitive rapid weight loss, which mainly occurred at the expense of lean mass. Conclusions: Despite maintaining adequate body composition, combat sports athletes reported an inadequate dietary pattern, especially during pre-competitive periods, which may negatively affect athletic performance. Full article

Introduction: Judo is a type of combat sport in which athletes must be able to constantly control their position and maintain a constant dynamic balance to respond to their opponent’s moves. In this scenario, the aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the role of core strength and stability in supporting balance, neuromuscular control, and functional performance-related determinants in judo athletes. Methods: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were systematically used for articles published from inception to 4 April 2025, to identify any sort of manuscript indicating judo athletes as its population and core training approaches as the intervention (PROSPERO registry with the code: CRD420251032685). Results: Out of 401 studies, after the removal of 206 duplicates, we screened 195 records. Then, seven articles were included in the systematic review. We found that a strong core might improve balance and neurodynamic control. International-level judokas showed greater trunk extensor strength and less trunk angular displacement. Previous research suggests that core training improves physical fitness, balance, and lower limb recovery; moreover, the lack of core muscle strength might predispose athletes to injury, while solid core stability could ensure good support for the body to perform any movement in a balanced, coordinated, and functional manner. Core stability training and strengthening protocols might also decrease the risk of falling, which could have a beneficial effect on judoka athletes. Conclusions: Despite the wide variety of protocols used for core strengthening, it has been documented that a strong core might improve balance and neurodynamic control of movement during competition. Full article

This study examined weekly internal load and neuromuscular performance in elite junior female boxers over 10 weeks. Internal load was quantified using session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), from which weekly monotony and strain were derived. Neuromuscular performance was assessed weekly using wall-sit endurance and a repetitive jump test. Twenty elite junior female boxers (Mean ± SD: 18.9 ± 1.2) were monitored during regular training without experimental manipulation. Weekly sRPE-derived training load, monotony, and strain showed statistically significant week-to-week fluctuations (p < 0.001). Neuromuscular performance improved in week 2, declined during weeks 3–5, and partially recovered in week 6. The findings demonstrated consistent temporal alignment between internal-load indices and week-to-week neuromuscular performance changes within an observational monitoring framework. Inter-individual variability was observed across athletes. Overall, sRPE-derived indices reflected training stress patterns and were aligned with neuromuscular performance changes in elite female boxers, supporting their use for contextual monitoring of weekly training responses. These findings support the practical integration of internal-load and performance monitoring in elite female combat-sport settings. Future research incorporating boxing-specific external-load metrics, physiological markers, and longer monitoring periods may further refine individualized load-management strategies. Full article

This study examined differences in finishing techniques and positional contexts across three temporal windows in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (2003–2004, 2013–2014, and 2023–2024), revealing differences consistent with a shift from greater diversity to a specialized and systematized model. Analysis of 906 finalized bouts demonstrated a marked concentration of submission finishes, with rear naked choke increasing from 15.8% to 46.8% (p ≤ 0.001), while back control was the dominant positional context (45.5%, p ≤ 0.001). In striking-based finishes, punches maintained prevalence, evolving from 77.4% (2003–2004) to 86.1% (2023–2024, p ≤ 0.001), whereas kicks declined from 20.5% to 11.3% (p ≤ 0.001). Submissions increased from 37.0% to 52.0% of all finalized bouts (p ≤ 0.001). These findings indicate a growing emphasis on specific finishing techniques, with modern mixed martial arts demonstrating increased distributional concentration in the methods used to finalize bouts. The increased frequency of certain techniques (e.g., rear naked choke and punches) among finalized fights may reflect strategic preferences, training priorities, or rule-driven changes in technique effectiveness, but cannot be interpreted as evidence of inherent technical superiority without additional data on success rates or efficiency metrics. Our data suggest that contemporary fighters have developed more direct and systematized approaches to finishing fights, reflecting the evolution of training methodologies and competitive strategies. Full article