Search Results (161)

Background: Visio-spatial skills (VSS) are fundamental perceptual–cognitive capacities that enable athletes to process dynamic visual information, interpret spatial relationships, and execute precise motor responses under competitive conditions. In taekwondo, where scoring actions are executed within milliseconds and success depends on the rapid detection and anticipation of an opponent’s movements, well-developed VSS are considered a functional prerequisite for performance. Method: This cross-sectional observational study examined differences in VSS between amateur taekwondo athletes (n = 50) and non-athletes (n = 50) recruited from the King Cetshwayo Municipality District, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Six VSS were assessed using standardized, validated instruments: accommodation facility (AF), saccadic eye movement (SEM), speed of recognition (SR), hand–eye coordination (HEC), peripheral awareness (PA), and visual memory (VM). Between-group comparisons were performed using the Mann–Whitney U test, with effect sizes reported as rank-biserial correlations (r). Results: Taekwondo athletes demonstrated significantly superior performance across all VSS domains (all p ≤ 0.05), with a large effect observed for SR (r = 0.91), HEC (r = 0,87), SEM (r = 0.78), and AF (r = 0.74), and moderate effect for VM (r = 0.58) and PA (r = 031). The largest between-group percentage differences were observed for SR (79.43%), HEC (48.13%), and SEM (33.33%), with smaller but significant differences in AF (31.05%), VM (14.92%), and PA (4.23%). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a dense, globally integrated VSS network in non-athletes anchored by AF, contrasting with a sparse pattern in taekwondo athletes, in which SEM showed the greatest number of moderate or stronger associations with other variables. These within-group correlation structures are presented as preliminary and descriptive observations only. Intraclass correlation coefficients were excellent for five of the six VSS (ICC ≥ 0.963), with PA yielding a point estimate of ICC = 0.853, characterized by a wide confidence interval. Conclusions: These findings indicate that amateur taekwondo athletes show superior perceptual, oculomotor, and visuo-motor performance compared to non-athletes. Within-group VSS correlation pattern differs descriptively between the groups. The cross-sectional design cannot determine whether these differences reflect training-associated perceptual adaptation, pre-existing trait-based self-selection into taekwondo, or a combination of both mechanisms. Both interpretations carry applied implications for talent identification and vision training program design. A longitudinal investigation is required to establish causal directionality. SEM and AF are proposed as the most diagnostically informative VSS markers for taekwondo screening, under either interpretation. Full article

Motor impairments and limitations in functional performance are common in children with autism spectrum disorder, restricting participation in daily activities. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of the MIG Program with conventional physical therapy in the development of socio-communicative motor skills and the achievement of functional goals. A mixed-methods randomized clinical trial was conducted with children with autism spectrum disorder aged 6 to 12 years (mean 8.73 ± 1.95; support levels 1 and 2), recruited from rehabilitation clinics in southeastern Brazil. Participants were randomly assigned to the MIG Program, which integrates contextualized functional motor training with narrative grammar strategies and the use of a therapeutic vest, or to conventional physical therapy based on traditional motor approaches. Primary outcomes included fundamental motor skills and functional goal attainment, while secondary outcomes were balance, gross and fine motor skills, and socio-communicative abilities. The RCT protocol was registered in the Brazilian Clinical Trials Registry (RBR-76pk39r), in 21 October 2025. The MIG Program was associated with greater improvements in fundamental motor skills and functional goal attainment compared to conventional physical therapy, with effects maintained at follow-up, as well as with more favorable trends in balance and communication outcomes; however, no clear differences were observed in gross and fine motor skills. Qualitative findings suggested increased engagement, autonomy, and participation in the MIG group. Overall, these preliminary findings indicate that the MIG Program may be a promising approach for supporting functional outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder, although the results should be interpreted with caution given the small sample size and the number of outcomes assessed. Full article

Background: Motor competence (MC), physical activity (PA), and physical fitness (PF) are interrelated components of child development, yet evidence on the MC–PF–PA triad in middle childhood remains inconsistent due to methodological heterogeneity. Objective: To synthesise associations between MC, PF, and PA in children aged 5–10 years (2020–2025) and to appraise methodological quality and certainty. Methods: A PRISMA 2020-compliant systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42024617560) searched six databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, SportDiscus, SciELO, PsycINFO) from January 2020 to April 2025, updated November 2025. Eligible observational studies in English reported quantitative associations between ≥2 constructs in 5–10-year-olds using validated instruments. Risk of bias was appraised in duplicate with JBI checklists. Quantitative pooling was unfeasible under a pre-specified pooling matrix; associations were synthesised narratively and certainty rated using a GRADE-style framework. Results: Thirteen studies (n = 43–1064; 11 cross-sectional, 2 longitudinal) were included; six were low, five moderate, and two high risk of bias. MC–PA was predominantly positive, especially with objective instruments; MC–PF was consistently positive; PF–PA was less consistent but trended positive longitudinally. Mediation/moderation analyses (k = 3) supported roles for perceived competence, self-efficacy, and PF. Null/negative findings clustered among subjective PA measures and higher risk of bias. GRADE certainty was low-to-moderate. Conclusions: MC, PF, and PA are interconnected in middle childhood, but cross-sectional predominance and instrument heterogeneity preclude causal inference; findings are provisional and should drive longitudinal, methodologically standardised research. Full article

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) frequently present impairments in executive functions and motor skills, which can negatively affect academic performance, adaptive behavior, and daily functioning. Exergames have emerged as a potentially engaging cognitive–motor intervention. The objective of this systematic review was to analyze the effects of exergame-based interventions on executive function components (particularly inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility) and motor skills in children with ASD. A systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines, with the protocol registered in PROSPERO. Electronic searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ERIC. Intervention studies published within the last five years and assessing exergame-based interventions in children with ASD were included. Methodological quality was evaluated using the PEDro scale. Six studies met the inclusion criteria. Exergame-based interventions were associated with improvements in executive functions, particularly inhibitory control (reported in two studies using Stroop- and Flanker-type tasks) and cognitive flexibility (assessed in two studies using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), although results varied depending on intervention duration and design. Acute interventions (single-session) primarily influenced inhibitory control, whereas longer-term programs showed broader cognitive and motor adaptations. Improvements in motor outcomes, including gross motor development, coordination, and fundamental motor skills, were reported in four studies. Methodological quality ranged from 4 to 6 points on the PEDro scale, indicating fair to good quality. Considerable heterogeneity was observed in intervention protocols, duration, and outcome measures. Exergame-based interventions may represent a potentially promising approach for targeting executive functions and motor skills in children with ASD; however, the current evidence is limited and heterogeneous. Not all included studies assessed both cognitive and motor outcomes, and findings should therefore be interpreted with caution. Further high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these effects and establish optimal intervention parameters. Full article

Background: Fundamental movement skills (FMS) underpin lifelong physical activity (PA) and health, yet many children are failing to meet age-appropriate standards. Caregivers hold a critical influence over children’s motor development, but little is known about what helps or hinders family participation, including messaging. This study explored the determinants of family FMS engagement in the United Kingdom (UK) during early childhood, addressing unexplored gaps in how guidance reaches families and the role of grandparents in supporting children’s motor development. Methods: Twenty-three semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 caregivers and 8 educators, including 4 grandparents and 2 family hub practitioners who offered original insights. Eleven children aged 3–5 years completed a flexible draw-and-tell task, enabling inclusion of rarely represented 3-year-olds. Thematic analysis was deployed. Results: Families and outdoor spaces were pivotal to children’s movement opportunities. However, awareness and understanding of FMS and UK PA guidance were poor, even among educators, disrupting dissemination of information to families. Greater emphasis on PA and FMS concepts within professional development, alongside clearer signposting to resources, more visible public-facing campaigns, and digital formats, could improve how families receive these messages. Tensions emerged between parents’ concerns about grandparents’ physical capability and grandparents’ belief that they could adapt to support children’s development. Unexpectedly, no children drew technology despite screen time frequently displacing active play, hinting at its normalisation and regulatory role in children’s lives. Conclusions: To enhance family understanding, value, and participation in FMS, UK policy must evolve to become more visible, relatable, and responsive to diverse family needs. Full article

Background/Objectives: Children and adolescents on the autism spectrum often experience delays in both gross and fine motor skills, which can limit their participation in physical activity and everyday tasks. Methods: This narrative review synthesizes evidence from 88 peer-reviewed studies examining fundamental motor skills, broader motor competence, and perceived motor competence in individuals aged 3–18 years with a formal diagnosis of autism. Results: Across the literature, children with autism consistently demonstrate lower proficiency in locomotor and object control skills compared with their typically developing peers, while perceived competence emerges as an important factor influencing motivation and engagement. Intervention studies—most commonly school-based or structured physical activity programs—generally report short-term improvements in motor performance, although outcomes vary depending on study design, dosage, and assessment tools. The review also highlights substantial methodological heterogeneity and a notable lack of evidence concerning adolescents, underscoring the need for longitudinal and developmentally sensitive research. Conclusions: Practical implications are discussed for creating supportive movement environments in educational and adapted physical activity settings. This review follows a narrative synthesis approach informed by a structured search strategy. Full article

Neurological injuries and disorders affecting hand motor control can severely impair the ability to perform activities of daily living and substantially reduce quality of life. Technologies such as virtual reality (VR) are increasingly used to address fundamental challenges in therapy, including motivation and engagement; further, programmable features of digital interfaces offer additional opportunities to personalize and optimize motor training. In this proof-of-concept study, we developed and evaluated a novel VR-based training framework to support improved dexterity and hand function using physiological (sensory-driven) and cognitive (memory) cues designed to promote greater task-relevant neural engagement. The proposed approach leverages the integration of augmented sensory feedback (ASF) with memory-anchored cues for motor learning of target hand gestures. Using a within-subjects design, thirteen neurotypical adults completed four training conditions: (1) control (baseline gesture-matching in VR), (2) visual ASF (enhanced visualization and feedback of gesture accuracy), (3) memory-anchored cues (associating gestures with semantically meaningful entities, loosely analogous to American Sign Language), and (4) hybrid multimodal (visual ASF + memory-anchored cues). Training with the hybrid condition produced the fastest skill acquisition (9.3 trials to reach an 80% accuracy threshold) and the steepest initial learning slope (1.86 ± 0.12%/trial), with all conditions differing significantly in initial slope (all p < 0.002). Post-training assessment showed that the hybrid condition achieved the highest gesture accuracy (95.2%), greatest normalized post-training accuracy gain (14.3% above baseline), fastest execution time to target gesture (1.14 s), and lowest variability in gestural kinematics (SD = 3.9%). Both ASF and memory-anchored cue conditions each also independently outperformed the control condition on gesture accuracy (both p ≤ 0.002), with omnibus ANOVAs indicating significant condition effects across metrics. Together, these findings suggest that pairing ASF cues with memory-based cognitive scaffolding can yield additive benefits for motor skill acquisition and stability. Pending validation in clinical populations, such approaches may inform the design of VR-based motor training frameworks for rehabilitation. Full article

Background: In response to China’s recent educational policies mandating a focus on fundamental movement skills (FMS) in school physical education, this study investigated the convergent validity between two widely used FMS assessment tools: the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3) and the Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment (CAMSA). Methods: A random sample of 134 9–10-year-old children were tested with both the CAMSA and the TGMD-3. Results: The outcomes from both the TGMD-3 and the CAMSA revealed a superiority in object-control skills among boys compared to girls, with a significant correlation between the two (r = 0.265–0.482, p < 0.01). Additionally, the Kappa correlation coefficient between the CAMSA and the TGMD-3 was 0.395, while the Kappa correlation coefficient between the CAMSA total skill and the TGMD-3 was 0.654. Conclusions: Both assessment tools effectively identified gender disparities in FMS, demonstrating correlation and consistency within acceptable ranges. Considering the slight variations in scoring methods, it is recommended to employ a variety of assessment tools in future evaluations of children’s FMS to enhance the overall comprehensiveness of the assessment. Full article

Accurate assessment of children’s fundamental motor skills (FMS) is crucial for promoting lifelong healthy development and formulating effective physical education policies. However, China currently lacks standardized assessment tools that cover the entire age range from 3 to 12 years and have undergone thorough cultural adaptation. This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties and cultural adaptability of the MOBAK assessment tool in measuring FMS in Chinese children aged 3 to 12 years. A total of 1200 Chinese children from four regions of China participated in the study, including 623 boys (52%) and 577 girls (48%). The MOBAK tool was used to assess FMS across different age groups, focusing on two dimensions: object movement (e.g., throwing, catching, bouncing, and dribbling) and self-movement (e.g., balancing, rolling, jumping, and running). The study evaluated psychometric properties, including reliability and validity. Results indicate that MOBAK demonstrates excellent psychometric characteristics: (1) Good item discrimination (all CR values p < 0.001), with an appropriate difficulty index (0.51–0.67); (2) Extremely high reliability, manifested by high internal consistency (α > 0.80), high test–retest stability, and high inter-rater consistency (ICC > 0.90); (3) Robust construct validity, supported by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, which consistently confirmed the hypothesized two-factor model and had excellent fit indicators (CFI/TLI > 0.90, RMSEA/SRMR < 0.08). The MOBAK battery demonstrates strong psychometric properties and cultural validity in the Chinese context for reliably assessing FMS in children aged 3–12 years. These findings provide a foundation for future cross-cultural comparisons and validation studies in other populations. Full article

Vision is fundamental to the acquisition of motor, cognitive, and social skills, playing a crucial role in typical development. Early visual impairments are associated with various neurodevelopmental conditions, including Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The (Brain-specific serine/threonine-protein kinase 2, BRSK2) gene has been identified as a high-risk gene for ASD. This study aims to investigate the role of brsk2 in retinal photoreceptor development and visual function in zebrafish. Using behavioral assays, histological analysis, and transcriptomic profiling, we assessed the impact of brsk2 deletion on retinal structure and function. The results showed that brsk2ab^−/− zebrafish larvae exhibited significantly enhanced light perception compared to wild-type (WT) controls. Structural analysis of the retina revealed disruptions in the layered organization, along with up-regulated rhodopsin expression in retinal cells. Additionally, transcriptomic analysis indicated that key opsins and genes involved in visual development and phototransduction pathways were markedly up-regulated following brsk2 deletion. This research highlights the importance of brsk2 in early retinal circuit development and its potential implications for understanding sensory processing deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders. By linking BRSK2 to specific sensory phenotypes, this study addresses a critical gap in knowledge regarding the mechanisms underlying sensory abnormalities in ASD and related conditions. Full article

Background: Despite the increasing interest in combat sports within higher education, studies on technical skill acquisition among novice female students remains limited. This study examined the effects of a short-term structured boxing program on the acquisition and retention of fundamental technical skills, focusing on stance (S), straight punches (SP), hooks (H), and uppercuts (U) among novice female university students. Methods: Technical performance was assessed under static and dynamic conditions at baseline (T1), after four weeks of course (T2), and at a two-month follow-up (T3) using customized scoring system. Handgrip strength (HG) and countermovement jump (CMJ) were measured as exploratory neuromuscular outcomes. Results: Results showed significant improvements in all technical skills at T2 compared with T1, in both static and dynamic executions (p < 0.001). Straight punches showed higher composite scores than hooks and uppercuts, while static performance was superior to dynamic execution (p < 0.001). Compared with T2, T3 showed a partial decline in performance for each skill in both executions (p < 0.001) (S_static = −18%; SP_static = −17%; H_static = −19%; U_static = −19%; S_dynamic = −22%; SP_dynamic = −18%; H_dynamic = −19%; U_dynamic = −21%), although T3 values generally remained above T1 baseline (S_static = +3%; SP_static = +19%; H_static = +22%; U_static = +29%; S_dynamic = −7%; SP_dynamic = +29%; H_dynamic = +29%; U_dynamic = +31%). HG showed a significant time effect (p = 0.005), while CMJ did not change significantly. Conclusions: These findings indicate that a short-term structured boxing program can effectively improve the technical boxing skills in female beginners. This supports the inclusion of a boxing course in university sport science curricula to enhance technical, motor, and educational development. Full article

Background: Passing in lacrosse is a fundamental skill essential for both offense and defense, directly influencing game flow. Although the speed–accuracy trade-off is well recognized in motor control, its features in lacrosse passing—particularly regarding directional aspects and skill differences—remain unclear. This study quantified the relationship between pass speed, accuracy, bias, and consistency and examined directional effects and skill-level differences. Methods: Twenty-two female university players (skilled: n = 9; unskilled: n = 13) executed overhand passes to a 5 cm × 5 cm target from 11 m under three effort conditions: warm-up, game intensity, and full effort. Ball speed was derived from lateral video, and landing coordinates from posterior footage. Accuracy, bias, and consistency were assessed using radial error (RE), centroid error (CE), absolute CE (|CE|), and bivariate variable error (BVE). Directional patterns were analyzed through lateral and vertical components and the 95% confidence intervals of the major and minor axes of an error ellipse. A two-way analysis of variance was performed with condition as the within-subject factor and skill level as the between-subject factor. Results: Ball speed increased significantly across conditions. RE, |CE|, and BVE increased with speed, showing directional dependence: variability expanded mainly along the major axis, while the minor axis remained stable. Skilled players showed smaller RE and BVE, with differences most evident vertically and along the major axis. CE direction stayed consistent, indicating that reduced accuracy stemmed from greater bias magnitude and lower consistency rather than shifts in the mean landing point. Conclusions: Findings confirm a speed–accuracy trade-off in lacrosse passing, characterized by directional specificity and skill-related effects. Combining RE, CE, BVE, and ellipse-axis analyses clarified error structure, showing variability concentrated along the movement axis. These results support training focused on vertical control and timing and highlight the value of directional metrics for assessing lacrosse performance. Future research should include male athletes, advanced levels, and in-game scenarios to extend generalizability. Full article

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) and behavioral self-regulation (SR) are important for lifelong physical activity (PA). While physical literacy (PL) mediates child PA, its broader developmental impact in early childhood education (ECE) remains underexplored. The Active Start feasibility study examined a 10-week PL-based intervention’s effects on FMS (stationary, locomotion, object control), total motor competency and behavioral SR, as well as sex-based differences, among 3–5-year-olds in Somerville, Massachusetts childcare centers. Children (mean age = 3.8 years, 55% boys) were randomized by childcare center (two per condition) into intervention (n = 39) or control (n = 35) groups. Outcomes were measured at baseline and final using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales for FMS and motor competency and the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task for SR. Intervention effects were assessed using linear mixed-effects and zero-inflated mixed-effects hurdle models, with interactions examining sex-based differences in program effectiveness. Stationary skills had a net average improvement of 2.3 points in the intervention group compared to the control (p < 0.01). No significant treatment effects were observed for locomotor, object control, total motor competency or behavioral SR skills (p > 0.05). The treatment effects did not significantly differ by sex. PL-based ECE interventions may enhance stability skills in motor development, but further research in larger samples is needed to determine broader impacts on early childhood development. Full article

Background/Objectives: The developmental gymnastics (DG) exercise programme is a specialised form of gymnastics that focuses on the physical, cognitive, and motor development of individuals, particularly children. This 36-week study aimed to investigate the effect of DG on the gross motor skills (GMS) of preschoolers. Methods: This randomised controlled trial included 300 preschool children (5.1 ± 0.83 years), of whom 220 completed the 36-week programme (EG = 99, CG = 121). The children were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group following standard physical activities. Attrition was mainly due to illness or attendance below 80%. Analyses were adjusted for age and BMI to control for confounding variables. Children in the CG participated in three organised extracurricular physical activities per week. In contrast, those in the EG engaged in 60 min of the designated exercise programme twice a week. We employed the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) to evaluate gross motor skills (GMS). Results: The mixed ANCOVA models revealed that EG showed greater improvement in all locomotor skills tests compared with the CG, with mean differences in TGMD-2 total scores of +3.28 points (p = 0.0002, partial η² = 0.24). Effect sizes ranged from small to large (partial η² = 0.05–0.19; Cohen’s d = 0.6–1.4), indicating meaningful practical improvements in gross motor competence. In the combined sample, both groups demonstrated similar improvements in all tests of object control skills. However, gender-specific differences were observed in the improvement of underhand roll, stationary dribble performance, and the total score of object control skills. Girls in the CG showed more improvement in underhand roll performance than girls in the EG. In contrast, boys in the EG demonstrated greater improvements in stationary dribble performance (4%) and the total score for object control skills (3%) compared to boys in the CG. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that the nine-month DG programme was associated with significant improvements in GMS in preschool children. These findings highlight the value of structured gymnastics as a sustainable component of preschool curricula. Trial Registration Number: NCT06315036. Full article

Background/Objectives: Motor development in middle childhood (9–11 years) is a decisive stage for the consolidation of fundamental motor skills. Among these, turning stands out as a complex stabilizing skill that requires postural control, angular momentum regulation, and sensory integration. However, despite its cross-cutting relevance in physical and sports practice, it has not been studied specifically. Methods: This cross-sectional, quantitative study analyzed the execution level of the turn in 214 Spanish students aged 9 to 11, considering its relationship with anthropometric variables (height, weight, and BMI), sex, and the frequency of extracurricular physical-sport practice. Results: The results showed mostly average-to-low performance in turning ability, with no linear progression with age; boys outperformed girls at ages 9 and 10, while at age 11 the differences narrowed. Regression analysis showed no significant associations (p < 0.05) between turning ability and anthropometric variables or frequency of general physical and sports activity. Conclusions: These findings reinforce the originality of the study by highlighting a rarely explored skill and underscore the need for specific pedagogical approaches. Educational and extracurricular programs should incorporate varied tasks designed to stimulate sensory integration, body awareness, and motor control, beyond the mere amount of physical practice. Full article