Search Results (430)

The rapid increase in electric vehicles has increased the generation of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and the need for efficient lithium recovery technologies. This study compared two distinct sulfation roasting routes, using sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) at 750 °C and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) at 550 °C, applied to black mass derived from lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM) batteries. Metal extraction efficiencies were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, while reaction products were identified by X-ray diffraction analysis. Sulfation roasting using Na₂SO₄ resulted in low lithium recovery for both materials, with maximum extractions of 5.7% for LFP and 24.5% for NCM. In contrast, H₂SO₄-assisted roasting achieved high lithium recovery from NCM black mass, reaching 90.8%, 91.5%, and 88.5% at 45, 90, and 180 min at 550 °C, respectively, with lithium predominantly converted into water-soluble lithium sulfate. Lithium extraction from LFP black mass remained below 13% under all conditions. Statistical analysis confirmed that lithium recovery at 45 min was equivalent to longer residence times, while prolonged roasting increased manganese coextraction and altered cobalt and nickel behavior. Overall, sulfuric acid-assisted sulfation roasting is an efficient and energy-favorable route for lithium recovery from NCM black mass, whereas sulfation roasting is unsuitable for LFP materials, under the tested conditions. The results highlight the importance of cathode chemistry segregation and demonstrate the feasibility of reducing processing time without compromising lithium recovery. Full article

The accelerating transition toward renewable electricity generation has elevated grid-scale electrochemical energy storage from an ancillary grid service to a foundational infrastructure requirement. This review provides a comprehensive account of rechargeable battery technologies for stationary grid applications, spanning advanced lithium-ion systems, sodium-ion and post-lithium multivalent chemistries, vanadium and organic flow batteries, solid-state architectures, and high-energy-density future systems such as lithium-sulfur and metal-air cells. The techno-economic context of grid-scale storage is systematically examined, including performance metrics, market drivers, and regulatory frameworks. Each battery chemistry is analyzed with respect to electrochemical mechanism, cycle life, energy density, safety profile, material availability, and commercial readiness. Non-electrochemical storage technologies are discussed as system-level alternatives. Battery safety engineering, thermal management system design, thermal runaway mechanisms and prevention, and failure containment strategies are examined in depth, followed by analysis of critical material supply-chain vulnerabilities, life-cycle assessment, and recycling pathways. The expanding role of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and digital twin frameworks in optimizing performance and enabling predictive maintenance is reviewed. Key challenges, including material bottlenecks, manufacturing scalability, long-duration storage gaps, and the absence of harmonized performance standards, are identified, and the review concludes with a techno-economic roadmap toward cost-competitive, resilient, and low-carbon grid storage. Full article

Conventional polyolefin battery separators are limited by inherent deficiencies in thermal stability, electrolyte wettability, and environmental sustainability, which collectively hinder the advancement of high-energy-density energy storage systems. In this context, biomass macromolecular materials, including cellulose, chitin/chitosan, and lignin, have emerged as promising candidates for next-generation separators owing to their environmental benefits, exceptional hydrophilicity, and superior thermal resistance. This review systematically evaluates the molecular characteristics of these three biomass systems, alongside core gel-state processing and network-forming processes such as electrospinning, solution casting, nonwoven technology, and hydrogel-assisted film formation. It further highlights their cutting-edge applications in lithium-ion, lithium–sulfur, zinc-ion, and solid-state batteries, emphasizing their behavior as polymer gel electrolytes and gel-derived structural matrices. To overcome key challenges associated with mechanical robustness, interfacial compatibility, and network uniformity, advanced modification strategies are critically discussed, including surface chemical functionalization, multicomponent hybrid composite formulation, and rational three-dimensional structural engineering. Overall, current research evidence demonstrates that rationally designed biomass-based gel networks and membranes can effectively suppress metal dendrite growth, immobilize soluble polysulfide intermediates via supramolecular interactions, and reduce interfacial impedance in solid-state systems, thereby offering a viable pathway toward safer, more sustainable, and commercially competitive high-energy-density batteries. Full article

The application of a huge number of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to electric vehicles has produced much solid waste. If not disposed properly, the solid waste may cause environmental pollution and is, per se, a waste of resources. Therefore, recycling valuable metals from LIBs is considered an ideal option for preventing environmental pollution and alleviating waste. Taking sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) as the leaching agent and glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) as the reducing agent, the ultrasonic-assisted reducing leaching was used to recycle lithium (Li) and iron (Fe) from spent lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. Based on experimental results of conventional leaching, the research aimed to examine the influence of ultrasonic treatment on leaching rates of Li and Fe. Results show that the leaching rates of Li and Fe are separately 96.53% and 96.8% when the concentration of H₂SO₄ is 2 mol/L, the concentration of C₆H₁₂O₆ is 2 mol/L, the liquid–solid ratio is 15 mL/g, leaching temperature is 70 °C, leaching time is 60 min, and ultrasonic power is 100 W. Compared with conventional leaching, the leaching rates of Li and Fe separately increase by 10.84% and 12.33% through ultrasonic-assisted leaching under the same experimental conditions. Kinetics analysis of ultrasonic-assisted reducing leaching indicates that the activation energies of Li and Fe are 10.84 kJ/mol and 16.24 kJ/mol, respectively. The ultrasonic-assisted reducing leaching process of Li and Fe from LFP batteries is controlled by diffusion. Full article

Given the confining effect of porous carbon and strong surface polarity of transition metal phosphides, their composite would be a promising cathode candidate to solve the problems of lithium–sulfur batteries including volume expansion and the shuttling effect of polysulfides. Herein, cobalt phosphide (CoP)-loaded phosphorous (P)-containing carbonized bamboo (CoP/PCBs) composites were fabricated via the co-pyrolysis of phytic acid, waste bamboo and Co(NO₃)₂·6H₂O via Joule heating at 600–1200 °C. Hydrogen radicals released from phytic acid enabled CoP/PCBs with developed porosity (438.1–812.4 m²/g). CoP nanoparticles coated with graphitic carbon were distributed uniformly on a porous matrix of PCBs. CoP/PCBs presented obviously enhanced adsorption capabilities for Li₂S₆, and 57.8–80.4 wt.% of sulfur was confined in CoP/PCBs/S cathodes. CoP/PCB heated at 1200 °C exhibited a high reversible capacity of 477.5 mAh/g after 500 cycles at a current density of 1 C with an average capacity decay rate of 0.045%. The specific capacity remained at 453.3 mAh/g after 300 cycles even under a high sulfur load of 4.0 mg/cm². Conversion of sulfur/polysulfides during the electrochemical process could be promoted via the physical confinement of sulfur and chemical confinement of Li₂S₆. This work provided a valuable reference for the facile fabrication of lithium–sulfur cathodes and utilization of metal phosphides in advanced lithium–sulfur battery systems. Full article

Global demand for sustainability drives interest in bioenergy from sustainable feedstock. Agro-industrial waste such as brewer’s spent grains (BSG) is an important by-product of brewing. This study provides a comprehensive review of the current technologies of BSG for energy recovery and BSG-based materials for energy storage applications. The latest scientific progress, not only from conventional processes on anaerobic digestion, combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction but also from several integrated technologies, pretreatment methods, and additives/catalysts regarding the improvement of energy efficiency and process sustainability, was reviewed. In addition, the co-feedstock practices (co-combustion, anaerobic co-digestion, hydrothermal co-liquefaction, anaerobic co-fermentation) and co-production were examined. AD of BSG yields about 302 NL CH₄/kg COD, generating roughly 0.39 kWh of electricity/kg BSG and 1.71 MJ of thermal energy/kg BSG. Ultrasonic pretreatment enhances methane production up to four times (107 L CH₄/kg TVS) and reduces CO₂ emissions by 0.083 t CO₂eq/t BSG. Anaerobic co-digestion of BSG with other brewery waste increased the yield up to 88 mL CH₄/g TVS, generated approx. 0.348 kWh/kg TVS electricity, and reduced emissions by 0.114 kg CO₂eq/kg TVS. Bioethanol yields can reach 72%, while biohydrogen generation was up to 5154 mL H₂/g glucose. BSG pyrolysis provides up to 71.8% bio-oil, and its calorific value is 18–25 MJ/kg. BSG-derived activated biocarbon has a notable surface area (1792 m²/g) for lithium–sulfur batteries. The assessment showed that BSG’s transformation into bioenergy and energy storage materials aligns with waste reduction and sustainable development goals. However, future research on combined alternative wastes, integrated technologies, green nanotechnology, and artificial intelligence technology could lead to optimal performance and facilitate their industrial application. Full article

All-solid-state lithium–sulfur batteries (ASSLSBs) couple the high theoretical energy density of sulfur (2600 Wh kg⁻¹) with the safety and polysulfide-shuttle suppression advantages of solid electrolytes (SEs). In practice, however, sluggish solid-state conversion kinetics, chemo-mechanical degradation in composite cathodes, and large solid–solid interfacial resistance remain the principal barriers to practical implementation. This review systematically examines recent progress across the three key components of ASSLSBs: cathodes, solid electrolytes, and interfaces. For cathodes, S/C composite design strategies and alternative active materials—including Li₂S, metal sulfides, and organosulfur compounds—are discussed. For solid electrolytes, inorganic (sulfide, oxide, halide, and hydride), polymer, and hybrid composite systems are compared. For interfaces, physical strategies (stack pressure, compliant interlayers, three-dimensional cathode architectures) and chemical strategies (cathode–SE and Li metal–SE interphase engineering, in situ stabilization) are evaluated. Outstanding challenges and design guidelines for next-generation ASSLSBs are discussed. Full article

Recovered graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries is an important secondary resource that can reduce reliance on primary graphite and lower the environmental footprint of battery production. In this work, graphite obtained as a carbon-rich residue after industrial hydrometallurgical leaching of NMC111 black mass (2 M H₂SO₄ + 3% H₂O₂) is subjected to three post-leaching washing treatments to assess how far simple, low-intensity steps can further clean the leach residue while preserving the carbon structure. The washing routes are water washing (GW), water washing with ultrasonication (GU) and mild sulfuric-acid washing with 0.1 M H₂SO₄ (GA). ICP-OES and SEM–EDX show that, relative to the leached black mass, all washing treatments reduce residual transition-metal contents by two to three orders of magnitude, and that the mild acid wash provides the lowest bulk metal levels, with several elements at or below detection limits. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy indicate graphite-dominated patterns and improved structural order, with the ID/IG ratio decreasing from 0.62 (GW) to 0.11 (GA) and the corresponding in-plane crystallite size increasing from 30.6 nm to 168 nm. Overall, the mild acid washing step is the most effective low-impact post-leaching purification route, yielding a thoroughly cleaned low-metal graphite fraction that preserves the graphite framework and constitutes a suitable intermediate for further upgrading or reuse in secondary applications. Full article

The potassium-rich mother liquor generated from the sulfuric acid process for lithium extraction from spodumene cannot be directly used for the production of battery-grade lithium salts, resulting in lithium resource loss. To address the issues of slow reaction rate and high seed crystal dosage in the traditional jarosite process for potassium removal, this paper systematically optimizes the type, dosage, and particle size of seed crystals based on the mechanisms of crystal nucleation and growth, ion occupancy competition, and interfacial crystallization-driven behavior. Results show that potassium jarosite seed offers high crystallographic compatibility, ease of preparation, and the best overall performance. Seed particle size must balance specific surface area and dispersibility; either too large or too small is detrimental to uniform crystal growth. Thermodynamic and kinetic analyses confirm that jarosite precipitation is strongly spontaneous and chemically controlled. Under the optimal process conditions (pH = 1.5, n(Fe³⁺)/n(K⁺) = 3.5:1, 1 g of potassium jarosite seed, 95 °C, 1 h), the potassium removal rate reaches (92.60 ± 0.48)%, and the lithium recovery rate is (95.20 ± 0.34)%. Lithium loss mainly arises from precipitate entrainment and insufficient washing; enhanced washing can further improve recovery. This study elucidates seed-mediated crystallization regulation and provides both theoretical guidance and technical reference for efficient potassium removal and high-value lithium recovery from potassium-rich mother liquor. Full article

Spent lithium-ion battery electrolytes contain fluorine-, sulfur-, and phosphorus-bearing toxins, necessitating deep detoxification and directional conversion into C₁–C₆ light hydrocarbons. To elucidate the specific catalytic roles and sequential activation of cathode metals (Li, Ni, Co, Mn), this work systematically deconvolutes their mono- and multi-metallic migration mechanisms over a CaO-ZSM-5* catalyst during vacuum catalytic pyrolysis (530 °C, 100 Pa). Results reveal that Li⁺ and Ni²⁺ dominate C–O bond cleavage in carbonates and CaO-ZSM-5*-assisted decarboxylation and oxygen fixation, significantly increasing the relative hydrocarbon content. Conversely, Co^2/3+ and Mn⁴⁺ release reactive oxygen species, causing deep oxidation of hydrocarbons into CO₂ and antagonizing the targeted conversion. In multi-metallic systems, forming composite metal oxides (M_xN_yO_z) increases the energy barrier for releasing active catalytic ions, hindering carbonate cleavage and leaving unreacted carbonate feedstocks. For detoxification, F and P are effectively immobilized as CaF₂ and Ca₂P₂O₇. The relative content of detected gas-phase nitriles is minimized to <2% due to the strong antagonistic effect of Ni²⁺ on Li⁺-promoted hexanedinitrile cleavage, while sulfur species derived from 1,3-propane sultone are converted to SO₂ and ultimately mineralized as calcium and metal-sulfur salts. Mechanistically, product distributions and crystallographic properties suggest a hypothesized sequential activation model—Li⁺ → Ni²⁺ → Mn⁴⁺—governing reactivity, whereas Co^2/3+ does not participate in the synergistic detoxification and selective upgrading process. This migration–reaction coupling framework provides critical insights for cathode-assisted in situ catalytic pyrolysis and closed-loop electrolyte recycling. Full article

The need for the rapid advancement of lithium-based energy storage technologies continues to outpace progress in materials development and manufacturing, creating a widening gap between laboratory-scale innovation and industrial deployment. There is a need to examine the key materials and processing challenges that limit the performance, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of next-generation lithium batteries. For material considerations, many commonly used electrodes face issues of volumetric expansion and performance degradation over charging cycles. To address these issues, binders are a crucial component to consider as they adhere active materials to the electrodes, and their structure can be altered to mitigate undesirable effects from these components. Hence, the selection and exploration of alternative binders are becoming increasingly important in the pursuit of longer-lasting and safer Li-batteries. From a manufacturing perspective, current production lines rely on multistep, energy-intensive processes, e.g., from slurry-mixing to cell assembly, that elevate costs and complicate scale-up. Emerging chemistries incorporating nanomaterials or solid-state components face additional barriers related to yield, process control, and defect management, all of which can exacerbate safety risks related to processing during production and thermal runaway in produced batteries. End-of-life considerations, including disassembly, recycling, and the safe handling of toxic materials, further contribute to the technological and logistical complexity of large-scale deployment. The field is moving toward sustainable material alternatives, more efficient and adaptive manufacturing routes, and advanced technologies such as solid-state electrolytes and nanostructured electrodes. Together, these developments provide a roadmap for overcoming current bottlenecks and enabling the next generation of high-performance, safe, and sustainable lithium battery technologies. This review examines the progress made in finding alternative materials and synthesis methods for the optimization of lithium battery cells, with a focus on the development of novel binders, slurry synthesis and manufacturing framework. In addition, the advantages and limitations of the alternative binder materials and processes are also explored, with a focus on scalability for manufacturing, safety concerns, sustainability and end-of-life challenges. Full article

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries hold great promise for next-generation energy storage owing to their ultrahigh theoretical energy density; however, their practical application is severely hampered by the polysulfide shuttle effect and the penetration of lithium dendrites through the separator. In this work, a carboxyl-containing anionic polymer (TPU-DMBA) is synthesized and composited with Ketjen Black (KB), and the resulting mixture is coated onto a commercial polypropylene separator via a simple doctor-blade method. In this design, the porous KB network provides physical adsorption to capture polysulfides, while the dissociated carboxylate groups (–COO⁻) generate strong electrostatic repulsion against negatively charged polysulfide anions (S_n²⁻). This dual-mechanism strategy—adding electrostatic repulsion on the basis of physical adsorption—effectively suppresses the shuttle effect. In addition, the flexible polymer backbone increases the tensile strength of the separator by approximately 30%, enhancing its resistance against dendrite penetration. The carbon material also significantly improves electrolyte wettability (the contact angle decreases from 41.6° to 11.7°) and ionic conductivity (from 0.48 × 10⁻³ to 0.88 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹). The polymer itself acts as a binder, eliminating the need for additional binder addition. Benefiting from the synergy of electrostatic repulsion, physical adsorption, and mechanical reinforcement, the prepared modified separator endows the Li–S battery with an initial specific discharge capacity of 1373.15 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 C and an initial discharge capacity of 714.46 mAh g⁻¹ at a high rate of 2 C. After 200 cycles at 2 C, the capacity remains 577.93 mAh g⁻¹, with a capacity retention of 80.89%. This work provides a low-cost, scalable, and binder-free separator modification strategy that simultaneously suppresses the polysulfide shuttle and resists dendrite growth, opening a new and effective pathway toward practical high-performance Li–S batteries. Full article

Preceramic polymers, especially silicon oxycarbide (SiOC) and silicon carbonitride (SiCN) ceramics, have gained significant attention due to their wide range of applications in many fields, particularly in energy storage devices beyond conventional lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This review focuses on the synthesis, structural characteristics, and properties of SiOC and SiCN ceramics as electrodes for battery applications. Furthermore, their promising applications as electrode materials for energy storage systems are explored, along with the most recent advances in the development of such materials and their use in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs), potassium-ion batteries (PIBs), sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), and supercapacitors. This review addresses the distinct advantages of SiOC and SiCN ceramics, including high thermal stability, mechanical robustness, and adaptable microstructures. It also examines the challenges associated with the commercialization of these ceramics, including issues related to electronic conductivity and ion transport pathways. Full article

The demand for flexible and wearable electronics has intensified the need for conformable, high-performance, and self-sustaining power sources. Flexible supercapacitors (FSCs) and flexible batteries (e.g., lithium-ion and lithium–sulfur) are promising owing to their high-power density, long cycle life, and mechanical flexibility. A transformative solution lies in integrating these storage devices with mechanical energy harvesters, particularly triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), to create autonomous self-charging power systems (SCPSs). TENGs exhibit high output, versatile operational modes, material flexibility, and efficient energy harvesting from body movements. This review provides an overview of the recent advances in flexible energy storage technologies, encompassing carbon-based materials, MXenes, polymers, metal oxides, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), and their hybrid architectures. It discusses the synergistic integration of these storage devices with TENGs to realize multifunctional SCPSs. It also highlights the fundamental design principles of flexible devices, the critical interplay of materials and architecture, and the journey towards monolithic system integration. The review also underscores the importance of managing harvesters’ pulsed output for efficient storage. Finally, a critical analysis of the challenges, including the energy density–flexibility compromise, environmental stability, and safety, is presented, alongside a forward-looking perspective on commercialization pathways for these technologies to power the next generation of autonomous wearable and sustainable electronic systems. Full article

Hybrid-electric propulsion and alternative energy carriers are being considered to mitigate the climate impact of short-range regional aviation. Within this framework, the HERA (Hybrid Electric Regional Architecture) project investigates advanced propulsion architectures for a next-generation 72 passenger regional platform. This work presents a cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Assessment of two HERA reference configurations and compares them with a conventional 70 passenger turboprop representative of current service aircraft. The analysis focuses on lithium–sulphur batteries, proton exchange membrane fuel cells, liquid hydrogen storage tanks, and electric motors. The assessment is implemented through a parametric LCA tool supported by a detailed Life Cycle Inventory based on Ecoinvent v3.8 and evaluated using ReCiPe 2016 midpoint indicators. The system boundary includes raw material extraction, manufacturing and assembly, operation under defined mission profiles, maintenance with component replacement, and End-of-Life (EoL) treatment. Results show that the operational phase remains the main driver of climate change impacts, exceeding 95% of total CO₂ equivalent emissions across configurations. The battery-based hybrid reduces fuel consumption but increases manufacturing and maintenance burdens. The fuel cell configuration shows a more balanced life cycle profile, with platinum identified as a critical hotspot. Full article