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24 pages, 338 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bell’s Inequalities and Entanglement in Corpora of Italian Language

by Diederik Aerts, Suzette Geriente, Roberto Leporini and Sandro Sozzo

Entropy 2025, 27(7), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/e27070656 - 20 Jun 2025

Viewed by 367

We analyse the results of three information retrieval tests on conceptual combinations that we have recently performed using corpora of Italian language. Each test has the form of a ‘Bell-type test’ and was aimed at identifying ‘quantum entanglement’ in the combination, or composition, of two concepts. In the first two tests, we studied the Italian translation of the combination The Animal Acts, while in the third test, we studied the Italian translation of the combination The Animal eats the Food. We found a significant violation of Bell’s inequalities in all tests. Empirical patterns confirm the results obtained with corpora of English language, which indicates the existence of deep structures in concept formation that are language independent. The systematic violation of Bell’s inequalities suggests the presence of entanglement, and indeed, we elaborate here a ‘quantum model in Hilbert space’ for the collected data. This investigation supports our theoretical hypothesis about entanglement as a phenomenon of ‘contextual updating’, independent of the nature, micro-physical or conceptual-linguistic, of the entities involved. Finally, these findings allow us to further clarify the mutual relationships between entanglement, Cirel’son’s bound, and no-signalling in Bell-type situations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Multidisciplinary Applications)

39 pages, 1294 KB

Open AccessArticle

Arrival Time and Bohmian Mechanics: It Is the Theory Which Decides What We Can Measure

by Aurélien Drezet

Symmetry 2024, 16(10), 1325; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym16101325 - 8 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2664

Abstract

In this work, we analyze recent proposals by Das and Dürr (DD) to measure the arrival time distributions of quantum particles within the framework of de Broglie Bohm theory (or Bohmian mechanics). We also analyze the criticisms made by Goldstein Tumulka and Zanghì (GTZ) of these same proposals, and show that each protagonist is both right and wrong. In detail, we show that DD’s predictions are indeed measurable in principle, but that they will not lead to violations of the no-signalling theorem used in Bell’s theorem, in contradiction with some of Das and Maudlin’s hopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physics)

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45 pages, 1118 KB

Open AccessArticle

Asymptotically Optimal Adversarial Strategies for the Probability Estimation Framework

by Soumyadip Patra and Peter Bierhorst

Entropy 2023, 25(9), 1291; https://doi.org/10.3390/e25091291 - 2 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1652

Abstract

The probability estimation framework involves direct estimation of the probability of occurrences of outcomes conditioned on measurement settings and side information. It is a powerful tool for certifying randomness in quantum nonlocality experiments. In this paper, we present a self-contained proof of the asymptotic optimality of the method. Our approach refines earlier results to allow a better characterisation of optimal adversarial attacks on the protocol. We apply these results to the (2,2,2) Bell scenario, obtaining an analytic characterisation of the optimal adversarial attacks bound by no-signalling principles, while also demonstrating the asymptotic robustness of the PEF method to deviations from expected experimental behaviour. We also study extensions of the analysis to quantum-limited adversaries in the (2,2,2) Bell scenario and no-signalling adversaries in higher

(n, m, k)

Bell scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Quantum Information)

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15 pages, 306 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimal Statistical Analyses of Bell Experiments

by Richard D. Gill

AppliedMath 2023, 3(2), 446-460; https://doi.org/10.3390/appliedmath3020023 - 16 May 2023

Viewed by 2870

Abstract

We show how both smaller and more reliable p-values can be computed in Bell-type experiments by using statistical deviations from no-signalling equalities to reduce statistical noise in the estimation of Bell’s S or Eberhard’s J. Further improvement was obtained by using the Wilks likelihood ratio test based on the four tetranomially distributed vectors of counts of the four different outcome combinations, one 4-vector for each of the four setting combinations. The methodology was illustrated by application to the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2015 and 2016 performed in Delft and Munich, at NIST, and in Vienna, respectively, and also to the earlier (1998) Innsbruck experiment of Weihs et al. and the recent (2022) Munich experiment of Zhang et al., which investigates the use of a loophole-free Bell experiment as part of a protocol for device-independent quantum key distribution (DIQKD). Full article

29 pages, 693 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Beyond Causal Explanation: Einstein’s Principle Not Reichenbach’s

by Michael Silberstein, William Mark Stuckey and Timothy McDevitt

Entropy 2021, 23(1), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/e23010114 - 16 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6145

Abstract

Our account provides a local, realist and fully non-causal principle explanation for EPR correlations, contextuality, no-signalling, and the Tsirelson bound. Indeed, the account herein is fully consistent with the causal structure of Minkowski spacetime. We argue that retrocausal accounts of quantum mechanics are problematic precisely because they do not fully transcend the assumption that causal or constructive explanation must always be fundamental. Unlike retrocausal accounts, our principle explanation is a complete rejection of Reichenbach’s Principle. Furthermore, we will argue that the basis for our principle account of quantum mechanics is the physical principle sought by quantum information theorists for their reconstructions of quantum mechanics. Finally, we explain why our account is both fully realist and psi-epistemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Theory and Causation)

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9 pages, 247 KB

Open AccessArticle

Summoning, No-Signalling and Relativistic Bit Commitments

by Adrian Kent

Entropy 2019, 21(5), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/e21050534 - 25 May 2019

Viewed by 3813

Abstract

Summoning is a task between two parties, Alice and Bob, with distributed networks of agents in space-time. Bob gives Alice a random quantum state, known to him but not her, at some point. She is required to return the state at some later point, belonging to a subset defined by communications received from Bob at other points. Many results about summoning, including the impossibility of unrestricted summoning tasks and the necessary conditions for specific types of summoning tasks to be possible, follow directly from the quantum no-cloning theorem and the relativistic no-superluminal-signalling principle. The impossibility of cloning devices can be derived from the impossibility of superluminal signalling and the projection postulate, together with assumptions about the devices’ location-independent functioning. In this qualified sense, known summoning results follow from the causal structure of space-time and the properties of quantum measurements. Bounds on the fidelity of approximate cloning can be similarly derived. Bit commitment protocols and other cryptographic protocols based on the no-summoning theorem can thus be proven secure against some classes of post-quantum but non-signalling adversaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Relativistic Quantum Information)

13 pages, 6061 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Parallel Lives: A Local-Realistic Interpretation of “Nonlocal” Boxes

by Gilles Brassard and Paul Raymond-Robichaud

Entropy 2019, 21(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/e21010087 - 18 Jan 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 10169

Abstract

We carry out a thought experiment in an imaginary world. Our world is both local and realistic, yet it violates a Bell inequality more than does quantum theory. This serves to debunk the myth that equates local realism with local hidden variables in the simplest possible manner. Along the way, we reinterpret the celebrated 1935 argument of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen, and come to the conclusion that they were right in their questioning the completeness of the Copenhagen version of quantum theory, provided one believes in a local-realistic universe. Throughout our journey, we strive to explain our views from first principles, without expecting mathematical sophistication nor specialized prior knowledge from the reader. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Nonlocality)

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