Search Results (963)

Salinity is a growing problem for cereal cultivation because it imposes multiple stresses, including osmotic, ionic, nutritional, and oxidative constraints, on the crop. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is considered a climate-smart C4 cereal for food, feed, fodder, forage, and bioenergy, but recent studies indicate that salinity continues to hinder establishment, biomass formation, reproductive growth, and yield. This review compiles the literature on the impacts of salinity on sorghum from 2021 to 2026, with a focus on germination, vegetative growth, physiological and biochemical responses, ion homeostasis, genetic control, productivity, mitigation, and future breeding priorities. In total, 160 records were identified, 118 records were screened after duplicate removal, and 44 recent sources were included in the synthesis. Across comparable sorghum studies, saline/NaCl treatments of approximately 60–200 mM commonly reduced germination by about 20–40%, root and shoot elongation by 25–50%, and biomass by 20–55%, while tolerant genotypes generally maintained higher K⁺/Na⁺ balance, 40–60% greater biomass retention, or two- to five-fold stronger ion homeostasis indicators than sensitive lines under similar conditions. Salt stress also lowers leaf expansion, chlorophyll stability, gas exchange, dry matter accumulation, panicle fertility, and grain filling. Tolerant genotypes show greater antioxidant potential, osmotic adjustment, photosynthetic stability, and root system resilience. Recent omics and genome-wide association studies suggest that salinity tolerance in sorghum is polygenic and involves genes related to ion transport, stress signalling, antioxidant regulation, osmolyte metabolism, and growth maintenance. This review recommends a shift from descriptive trait lists to full-cycle field validation, multi-trait selection indices, and integrated packages combining breeding with seed priming, soil water management, amendments, and beneficial microorganisms. Full article

Salinity is a major constraint to crop productivity. Beneficial plant–fungus interactions represent a promising strategy to enhance stress resilience. Here, we investigated fungal endophytes isolated from the roots of Oryza sativa cultivated in saline-prone marshlands of the Guadalquivir River, Spain. From a collection of 38 isolates, five salt-tolerant strains exhibiting plant growth-promoting activity were identified, including a previously uncharacterized Reticulascus sp. strain S5. Co-cultivation assays with the non-native host plant Arabidopsis thaliana demonstrated that S5 increased the root and shoot biomass under salt stress. To elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms, a comprehensive RNA-Seq analysis of the roots and shoots under control and saline conditions was performed. Fungal colonization induced pronounced transcriptomic changes, particularly in the shoots, including rewiring of the auxin- and abscisic acid-related pathways and the induction of genes associated with cell wall remodeling. Concurrently, defense-related processes, including glucosinolate biosynthesis and ethylene signaling, were broadly repressed, suggesting attenuated stress perception in colonized plants. In the roots, S5 inoculation suppressed the expression of genes involved in root hair development and cell wall organization, indicating a fungus-driven reconfiguration of root development. Moreover, comparative analysis with Fusarium sp. K-23, a fungus that has previously been demonstrated to promote plant growth under salinity stress, revealed distinct root-associated mechanisms but convergence on a shared regulatory module in shoots involving ABA-responsive transcription factors and osmotic stress regulators. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that Reticulascus sp. S5 enhances plant salt stress tolerance through the coordinated transcriptional reprogramming of growth, hormone signaling, and stress responses, highlighting a possible potential of habitat-adapted endophytes for sustainable crop improvement. Full article

Background: Autophagy plays a central role in maintaining cellular homeostasis, regulating growth and development, and responding to multiple stresses. Autophagy-related genes (ATGs) play critical roles in autophagy, yet their functional diversity in soybean (Glycine max) remains underexplored. Methods: Genome-wide identification of GmATG genes was performed using sequence similarity and domain-based searches against the Wm82.gnm4 reference genome, followed by characterization of physicochemical properties, chromosomal distribution, phylogenetic relationships, gene duplication, conserved motifs, gene structure, three-dimensional structural, and promoter cis-acting elements. Tissue-specific expression and multiple stresses response were examined using transcriptome data and profiled by RT-qPCR. Results: A total of 60 GmATG genes belonging to 20 subfamilies were identified in soybean. Gene family expansion was predominantly driven by fragment duplication (33 gene pairs), with the ATG8 family expanding to 12 members, and pan-genomic analysis uncovered prominent copy number variation (6–9 copies) in the ATG18 family. GmATG genes showed distinct expression patterns in response to multiple abiotic and biotic stresses. Specifically, GmATG18f was significantly induced by phosphorus deficiency in the low-phosphorus-tolerant soybean variety Nannong 94-156. GmATG8g, GmATG9d and GmATG13d showed a typical expression trend of initial increase followed by decrease, with expression levels peaking at 6–12 h after salt stress treatment. GmATG8g and GmATG9d were rapidly upregulated at the early drought stress stage, while GmATG13a maintained sustained upregulation. In response to Phomopsis stem rot, GmATG7a/8h/8i/11/13d/18e/18f displayed differential expression in resistant and susceptible soybean materials. Conclusions: This study systematically characterizes the composition, expansion and stress response patterns of the GmATG gene family, revealing functional differentiation among family members. The identified key candidate genes, including abiotic-stress-regulated GmATG8g/9d/13d/18f and biotic-stress-regulated GmATG7a/8h/8i/11/13d/18e/18f, provide valuable genetic resources for the molecular breeding of stress-tolerant soybean. Full article

β-D-Xylosidases (BXLs) are members of glycoside hydrolase family 3. They play essential roles in cell wall remodeling, plant development, and abiotic stress responses. BXL gene families have been systematically characterized in several crop species. However, a comprehensive analysis of BXL genes in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), a globally important fiber and oilseed crop, is still lacking. In this study, we performed a genome-wide identification of BXL genes in allotetraploid cotton. A total of 25 GhBXL genes were identified and classified into six phylogenetic clades. Gene structure and conserved domain analyses showed that all GhBXL proteins possess the characteristic tripartite GH3 domain architecture. Chromosomal distribution and synteny analyses indicated that the expansion of the cotton BXL family may be associated with whole-genome duplication and allopolyploidization. Promoter cis-element analysis detected stress-responsive regulatory motifs in the GhBXL promoters, including STRE, W-box, DRE core, and as-1 elements. Under PEG-simulated drought and salt stress, expression profiling, independently confirmed by qRT-PCR, showed distinct temporal response patterns among GhBXL members. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) further identified GhBXL-8, GhBXL-9, and GhBXL-20 as hub genes in stress-responsive modules. Their co-expressed partners were enriched in transcription factors, kinases, and stress-related proteins. These findings provide a systematic foundation for understanding the evolutionary dynamics and functional roles of BXL genes in cotton. They also highlight candidate genes for future functional investigation. Full article

Soil salinization stands out as a major factor contributing to the shrinkage of arable land. This study explored the salt tolerance mechanism of tillers in CMG and 9311 by evaluating morphophysiological, transcriptomic, and metabolomic characteristics under 0.3% NaCl stress. The activities of SOD, POD, and APX in the tiller nodes of the salt-tolerant variety CMG were higher than those of 9311, while the levels of MDA and hydrogen peroxide in the tiller nodes of CMG were relatively low. Both varieties responded to salt stress mainly by activating pathways such as amino acid metabolism (alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid metabolism, and arginine biosynthesis), amino acid acyl-trNA biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and phenylpropanin biosynthesis. The varieties differed in that CMG tillering nodes also have unique pathways of “glycerophospholipid metabolism” (related to membrane lipid remodeling) and “biosynthesis of the cuticle, suppositories and waxes”, which can effectively reduce water loss and prevent sodium ions from entering. In addition, CMG can regulate more plant hormone signaling pathways to coordinate the expression and metabolic activities of downstream defense genes, such as abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonic acid (JA), and other hormone signals. After salt stress, the CMG tiller nodes tend to strengthen themselves, enabling them to resist stress and reduce Na⁺ toxicity, while the 9311 tiller nodes, under the condition of activating basal metabolism, transfer to the leaves to enhance photosynthetic efficiency and resist stress. Through comprehensive screening and analysis of the genes and metabolites of CMG and 9311 tillers under salt stress, the molecular mechanisms and metabolic pathway dynamics involved in their salt stress response were identified, thus providing a new perspective for in-depth research on rice salt tolerance mechanisms. Full article

Sulfur is an essential nutrient involved in plant growth, redox regulation, and responses to environmental stresses. Sulfate transporters (SULTRs) control sulfate uptake and distribution, thereby affecting sulfur availability for metabolic processes and stress adaptation. However, the characteristics and stress-responsive functions of SULTRs in the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum remain unclear. In this study, we identified and characterized the SULTR family in S. portulacastrum through phylogenetic analysis, gene structure comparison, conserved motif analysis, promoter characterization, synteny analysis, and expression profiling. A total of 22 SpSULTRs were identified and classified into three subfamilies. Most SpSULTRs contained conserved Sulfate_transp and STAS domains and were predicted to localize to the plasma membrane. Transcriptome analysis combined with qRT-PCR validation revealed that SpSULTRs displayed diverse tissue-specific expression patterns under salt, cadmium, and copper stresses. Of these, SpSULTR3;1 and SpSULTR3;2 showed strong responses to salt stress and were mainly expressed in leaves. Protein interaction predictions suggested that these two transporters may be associated with sulfur assimilation, antioxidant metabolism, and stress-related pathways. These results reveal the structural diversification and stress-responsive characteristics of the SULTR family in S. portulacastrum and provide a basis for further investigation of sulfur transport mechanisms underlying halophyte adaptation. Full article

A systematic evaluation of salt tolerance at the seedling stage was conducted using 143 maize inbred lines under a 150 mM mixed-salt solution (NaCl:Na₂SO₄ = 9:1, EC = 16.78 dS/m) that mirrors the ionic composition of saline groundwater in the Yellow River Delta. The comprehensive salt tolerance index (D value) ranged from 0.15 to 0.85 across the population, with the elite line B114 exhibiting the highest D value (0.835) and the sensitive line PHT55 ranking near the bottom. Under salt stress, B114 displayed remarkable growth stability, with plant height decreasing by only 25.9%, fresh weight by 13.3%, and dry weight remaining unchanged, whereas PHT55 suffered severe growth inhibition (plant height: 61.5% decrease; fresh weight: 63.2% decrease; dry weight: 33.3% decrease). Time-series RNA-seq of root tissues across four time points (5, 8, 11, and 14 days) revealed markedly distinct transcriptional dynamics: B114 exhibited relatively stable temporal regulation (2261–9124 DEGs), whereas PHT55 showed a pronounced early transcriptional burst that progressively intensified (3728–10,108 DEGs). Using random forest-based machine learning, 50 core salt tolerance-related genes were unbiasedly identified from 16,194 significantly differentially expressed genes. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that these genes were primarily involved in redox regulation, ion homeostasis maintenance, and stress signal transduction pathways. qRT-PCR validation confirmed biphasic expression patterns, with Zm00001d024160 showing the strongest early induction (48-fold at 5 h). This study established a maize salt tolerance evaluation system closely aligned with field conditions and demonstrated that coordinated temporal transcriptional regulation represents a core molecular mechanism underlying high salt tolerance in maize. The elite salt-tolerant germplasm and key candidate genes identified here provide valuable genetic resources and a theoretical foundation for molecular breeding of salt-tolerant maize adapted to saline-alkaline soils. Full article

Soil salinity and bacterial spot of tomato (BST), caused by Xanthomonas perforans, are major abiotic and biotic stresses limiting tomato production, particularly in Florida. While their individual effects are well documented, the impact of soil salinity on BST has not yet been investigated. This greenhouse study evaluated how increasing irrigation water salinity (electrical conductivity [EC] = 0.5, 3, 5, or 7 dS m⁻¹) affected tomato growth, physiology, BST severity, fruit quality, and transcriptomic responses. Salinity reduced plant growth and BST severity but did not directly affect X. perforans populations. Results indicated that reduced plant physiological activity (net CO₂ assimilation [A], transpiration [E], and stomatal conductance [g_s]) contributes to lower disease levels. Increased salinity led to more solute concentrations, altered sugar metabolism, and improved perceived taste, as supported by taste panel, osmolality, and transcriptomic analyses. They also showed that transcriptional responses to salinity (EC = 7 dS m⁻¹) and X. perforans infection were strongly time-dependent. Salt-treated plants exhibited fewer differentially expressed genes following inoculation, whereas comparisons between EC 7-treated and control plants revealed extensive salinity-induced reprogramming. KEGG analysis indicated enrichment of photosynthesis, carbon metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, and ribosome pathways, while defense-related pathways, including MAPK signaling and plant–pathogen interaction, were downregulated, suggesting that tomato prioritized adaptation to salinity over pathogen defense. Full article

Plant-derived lectins originating from plants perform essential functions in both plant growth and stress response processes. Rice jacalin-related mannose-binding lectin 1 (OsMBL1), a well-characterized canonical salt-responsive regulatory factor, acts as a core positive regulator that confers enhanced salt tolerance. In the present study, OsMBL1 was found to respond to multiple environmental stresses and signaling molecules, and it not only positively regulated salt tolerance at the seedling stage but also at the seed germination stage. To dissect the underlying regulatory network, we performed transcriptome profiling of an OsMBL1-overexpressing line, which identified 562 differentially expressed genes (438 up- and 124 down-regulated) relative to wild-type plants. These sets of differentially expressed genes exert pivotal control over a suite of physiological events, most notably the conserved metabolic routes of phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis. Further physiological assays confirmed a low level of membrane lipid peroxidation and a high level of flavonoids and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and peroxidase antioxidant enzyme activities in the OsMBL1-overexpressing line. Collectively, these correlative findings suggest that OsMBL1 overexpression is associated with the upregulation of genes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis and with an altered antioxidant system status, which may contribute to enhanced stress tolerance in rice. Collectively, these observations provide a deeper perspective on the molecular underpinnings of OsMBL1-associated stress adaptation. Full article

The SWEET (Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporter) family, a class of sugar transporters identified in recent years, plays important roles in plant growth and development. Increasing evidence suggests that SWEET genes are also involved in plant responses to abiotic stresses, including salt stress. However, the genome-wide composition and salt-responsive functions of SWEET genes in Elymus nutans Griseb. have not been systematically characterized to date. This study presents the first genome-wide identification of the SWEET gene family in E. nutans and functional characterization of EnSWEET15 in salt stress response, providing candidate genes and a theoretical basis for improving salt tolerance in this species. A total of 12 EnSWEET genes were identified from the E. nutans genome and were unevenly distributed across eight chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis classified them into four subfamilies, and promoter analysis revealed abundant cis-elements related to hormone signaling and stress responses, suggesting roles in abiotic stress adaptation. Expression analysis showed that EnSWEET15 was significantly upregulated in both roots and leaves under salt stress. The full-length EnSWEET15 coding sequence (930 bp ORF) was cloned and functionally characterized. Heterologous overexpression in Arabidopsis thaliana indicated that EnSWEET15 enhances salt tolerance. Transgenic lines showed reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and increased activities of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT), compared with wild-type plants under salt stress. Overall, this study identifies EnSWEET15 as a positive regulator of salt tolerance via modulating ROS homeostasis, providing novel insights into SWEET-mediated salt stress response in perennial forages and valuable genetic resources for salt-tolerant breeding of E. nutans. Full article

Soil salinity is a major constraint limiting rice productivity, particularly at the reproductive stage. To elucidate the genetic basis of reproductive stage salinity tolerance, this study validated and fine-mapped quantitative trait loci (QTL) for yield-related traits using a salinity-tolerant line SL506, identified through screening of Nona Bokra–CSSLs in a Koshihikari background. In 2016, the F₂ population derived from SL506/Koshihikari was evaluated under long-term salt stress; three QTLs associated with plant dry weight, panicle number, and grain weight were detected on chromosome 2. In 2023, validation analysis using F₃ individuals confirmed the presence of these QTLs. Subsequent fine-mapping using F₄ near-isogenic lines (NILs) delimited the QTL to a 1.7 Mb interval and high-resolution mapping using an F₅ recombinant population progressively refined it to a 473 kb genomic region containing 69 annotated genes. Variant Effect Predictor analysis identified 15 deleterious nonsynonymous variants (SIFT < 0.05) in six candidate genes. Based on annotated gene functions, predicted variant effects, and their membership in stress-related gene families, OsPP2C24, OsFbox102, and OsWAK14 were suggested as the most promising candidate genes underlying qPDW2. These findings provide insights into the genetic basis of reproductive-stage salinity tolerance from valuable resources for the future improvement of salt tolerance and yield stability in rice. Full article

Heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins, commonly known as G proteins, act as core molecular switches in plant signal transduction, governing multiple biological processes including plant growth, development, phytohormone signaling, and abiotic stress adaptation. In this study, a total of 12 G-protein-related genes were identified in foxtail millet, consisting of six Gα subunit-encoding genes, one Gβ subunit-encoding gene, and five Gγ subunit-encoding genes. Gene structure and conserved motif analyses showed that members classified into the same subunit clade possessed highly conserved exon–intron organization and motif distribution, indicating evolutionary structural conservation within each G-protein subfamily. Promoter Cis-acting element analysis revealed that all G-protein family genes harbored light-responsive elements, as well as multiple regulatory elements associated with phytohormone signaling and abiotic stress responses. Transcriptome analysis showed that different G-protein genes exhibited distinct expression patterns under salt stress. Notably, SiαXLG2 exhibited drastically induced expression upon salt stress, which serves as a pivotal candidate gene for salt-stress response in foxtail millet. Collectively, this study provides a systematic characterization of the G-protein gene family and offers candidate gene resources for further elucidating G-protein-mediated salt-stress regulatory mechanisms in foxtail millet. Full article

The ban on antibiotic growth promoters in livestock production has created an urgent demand for safe and effective probiotic alternatives derived from indigenous animal microbiota. Here, we isolated Enterococcus hirae HI3 from Hu sheep jejunum and confirmed its species assignment via whole-genome sequencing, with ANI analysis showing 98.92% identity to the E. hirae reference genome. HI3 showed moderate acid tolerance, with survival rates of 19.31% (95% CI: 15.83–22.78%) at pH 2 and 18.40% (95% CI: 17.87–18.94%) at pH 3 after 4 h, and maintained > 50% survival in 2% bile salts. It was susceptible to penicillin, ampicillin, erythromycin, and chloramphenicol. No hemolytic activity was observed, and major enterococcal virulence genes (gelE, cyl, esp, hyl) were absent from the HI3 genome. The HI3 genome (3.06 Mb) consists of one circular chromosome and three circular plasmids. Functional annotation identified 229 carbohydrate metabolism genes (including 65 glycoside hydrolases) and 43 probiotic-related genes involved in acid tolerance (atpA–G, nhaC), bile salt tolerance (cbh), stress responses (clp family, groEL, dnaK, cspA, sod2), and adhesion (ltaS, srtA, eno, epsA). Multiple bacteriocin biosynthetic gene clusters (enterolysin A, class II lanthipeptide, etc.) were identified. Plasmid-borne tetracycline resistance genes tet(M) and tet(L) were detected; however, their functional transferability requires experimental validation. No other known transferable resistance determinants were identified in the genomic analysis. These in vitro and genomic findings represent an initial characterization of E. hirae HI3 and support its potential as a ruminant probiotic candidate. However, in vivo studies are required to validate its colonization capacity, safety, and efficacy in the target ruminant species. Full article

The Fruit-Weight 2.2-Like (FWL) gene family plays crucial roles in determining organ size and stress responsiveness in plants. However, the FWL family members remain largely unexplored in Gossypium species. In this study, we identified and characterized the FWL family in Gossypium hirsutum to investigate their gene expansion, functional evolution, and potential association with key agronomic traits. A total of 51 GhFWLs were identified, and their gene structures, domain compositions, and phylogenetic relationships were comprehensively analyzed. Expression profiling under heat, cold, salt, and drought stress conditions revealed that most GhFWLs participate in abiotic stress response pathways. Haplotype-based association analysis revealed significant associations for 14 GhFWLs with fiber-related traits, suggesting their potential functions in regulating fiber development. Furthermore, silencing the family member GhMCA1 provided supporting evidence for its role in salt stress tolerance. Our findings provided insightful information about the FWL gene family in G. hirsutum and highlighted candidate genes for improving fiber-related traits and stress tolerance through molecular breeding approaches. Full article

NCED proteins play a critical role in drought, salt, and cold stress responses through ABA biosynthesis in plants. However, little information is currently available regarding the NCED gene family in Brassica species. Twenty-six putative BjNCED genes were identified in the genome of Brassica juncea, and found to be distributed on 15 chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that these members could be classified into six subfamilies. The putative cis-elements were identified in the promoter regions of these BjNCED genes, and thought to be related to phytohormones, light, and abiotic stress responses. qRT-PCR analysis of five genes (BjNCED1, BjNCED4, BjNCED7, BjNCED16 and BjNCED18) revealed that, under salt stress, BjNCED16 and BjNCED18 showed transient induction, whereas exogenous ABA produced gene-specific and time-dependent expression patterns, including pronounced induction of BjNCED16 at 24 h. Low-temperature treatment strongly induced four of the five examined genes at 6 h. Analysis of the BjNCED genes in this study provides a valuable foundation for future investigations into the functional roles of the BjNCED family in response to growth, development and stress. Full article