Search Results (417)

Background/Objectives: Temporomandibular disorder (TMD) affects a third of the adult population and has been associated with otologic symptoms. These symptoms are frequently misattributed to primary otologic diseases, leading to delays in diagnosis and treatment. This review aims to summarize the reported prevalence, proposed pathophysiologic mechanisms, and management strategies of otologic manifestations in patients with TMD. Methods: A literature review was conducted using the MeSH terms “temporomandibular joint disease” and “otologic symptoms.” Five additional searches were performed using “temporomandibular disease/dysfunction” combined with each of the five most common otologic symptoms. Meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, reviews, and systematic reviews were prioritized, with preference for studies published within the last 10 years. Inclusion criteria focused on human studies addressing the etiology, clinical presentation, and management of otologic symptoms in TMD populations. Results: The literature supports an association between TMD and otologic symptoms in the absence of primary ear disease. The most commonly described symptoms were aural fullness, otalgia, tinnitus, vertigo, and hearing loss. Conservative approaches, including occlusal splints, physical therapy, behavioral modification, and pharmacologic therapy, demonstrated partial or complete symptom resolution after management of underlying TMD. Conclusions: The literature demonstrates a consistent association between otologic symptoms and TMD, although the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. While conservative TMD management may improve symptoms, exact mechanisms remain unproven. Clinicians should consider TMD in the differential diagnosis when patients present with unexplained otologic complaints. Further research is necessary to establish causality, confirm the efficacy of management protocols, and improve diagnostic accuracy in this overlapping domain. Full article

Lubricin, also known as proteoglycan 4 (PRG4), is a key glycoprotein involved in boundary lubrication and maintenance of joint homeostasis in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). However, the clinical evidence regarding synovial fluid (SF) lubricin levels remains limited and fragmented. This scoping review aimed to map and synthesize the available clinical evidence on lubricin levels in patients with temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) and their relationship to clinical outcomes, particularly pain and mandibular mobility. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, ACM, BASE, Cochrane, ClinicalTrials.gov, and Google Scholar. After duplicate removal and screening, two studies were included in the final synthesis. Preliminary findings from these studies suggest that (SF) lubricin levels may be lower in more advanced TMJ pathology, particularly in degenerative disease. Earlier stages of internal derangement showed lubricin concentrations closer to those observed in healthy controls, whereas advanced internal derangement and osteoarthritic disease were potentially associated with lower levels. One study also reported an inverse correlation between lubricin concentration and pain intensity, while the other demonstrated impaired boundary lubrication in TMD groups. Overall, the available clinical evidence is very limited and insufficient to establish PRG4 as a validated biomarker but suggests a possible association between reduced SF lubricin levels and more advanced TMJ disease. Further well-designed clinical studies are required to confirm these observations and clarify their diagnostic and therapeutic relevance. Full article

Introduction: The relationship between facial form and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) joint-space dimensions remains unclear, particularly regarding variation across different facial shapes. Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) provides accurate three-dimensional evaluation of TMJ structures and allows precise assessment of joint-space dimensions. This study aimed to evaluate the association between facial form and TMJ joint-space dimensions (anterior, superior, and posterior) using CBCT. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study included 69 adults aged 18–50 years with complete permanent dentition and no signs of temporomandibular disorders based on the Fonseca Index. Facial form was classified as round, oval, or square using standardized two-dimensional photography and an algorithm-based facial classification method (Fisherface-based analysis). CBCT images were obtained using a standardized TMJ protocol, and anterior, superior, and posterior joint spaces were measured bilaterally. Statistical comparisons were performed using ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis tests (p < 0.05). Results: Most joint-space dimensions showed no significant differences among facial forms. A significant variation was observed only in the left posterior joint space (p = 0.002), where round-faced individuals exhibited the smallest mean value (2.39 ± 1.64 mm) compared with oval (3.77 ± 2.01 mm) and square (6.01 ± 3.12 mm) facial types. Conclusions: Facial form demonstrated minimal influence on temporomandibular joint joint-space dimensions, with differences observed only in the left posterior compartment. These findings suggest that facial-shape assessment may have limited but potentially complementary value in TMJ evaluation. However, the clinical implications should be interpreted cautiously given the predominantly non-significant findings. Full article

Motion dysfunction constitutes a critical clinical manifestation of temporomandibular joint disorder (TMD). Notably, prior research predominantly consists of qualitative clinical descriptions. To better understand the mandibular movement by quantitative analysis, our study proposes a mathematical approach for extracting kinematic parameters and preliminarily illustrates the feasibility and technical advantages through a comparative kinematic parameters analysis of a volunteer opening–closing movement performed in maximum intercuspal position (MIP) and therapeutic position (TP). By decomposing the translational and rotational components of opening–closing movement, the symmetry of the mandibular movement was improved and the maximum mouth opening was increased after wearing a bite-guiding splint. Furthermore, changes in the spatial position of the finite helical axis (FHA) indicated that the FHA position became more stable after wearing the splint, suggesting that this metric has potential kinematic assessment value. Finally, a cushioning effect was observed at the maximum mouth opening when the bite-guiding splint was worn. This approach is expected to provide clinical practice with a high-precision digital assessment tool and a valuable reference for the quantitative evaluation of personalized temporomandibular joint (TMJ) functional rehabilitation. The method could not only conveniently extract the key kinematic parameters of mandible movement but also efficiently evaluate the therapeutic outcomes of clinical intervention. Full article

Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) are a group of musculoskeletal conditions characterized by pain, restricted mandibular movement, and joint sounds, which may significantly impair quality of life. Among conservative treatment modalities, low-level laser therapy (LLLT) has gained increasing attention due to its noninvasive nature and its documented analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Despite growing evidence supporting the clinical effectiveness of LLLT in the management of TMD-related pain and dysfunction, there is still no consensus regarding the optimal energy density parameters to achieve the most favorable therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, the primary objective of this randomized clinical trial was to determine the optimal energy density of low-level laser therapy. This clinical study evaluated the effects of LLLT applied at different energy densities in patients diagnosed with disk displacement with reduction (DDwR) and myofascial pain. A total of 100 patients were divided into two diagnostic groups, each divided into three subgroups: 940 nm, 1.5 W, 90 J; 940 nm, 3 W, 180 J; and a soft diet group. Laser treatment was performed three times per week for three weeks, for a total of nine sessions. Pain intensity, mandibular movements, and joint sounds were assessed at baseline and at one and six months. Comparable and favorable clinical improvements were achieved in both the laser therapy groups and the soft diet group. The 1.5 W-treated group showed the most significant VAS (visual analog scale) parameter reduction at 6 months. Laser treatment outcomes can be summarized as follows: low-level laser therapy was associated with clinical improvement; however, similar positive outcomes were also observed in the soft diet group. These findings indicate that further controlled studies are needed to better clarify the specific role of laser therapy in the management of temporomandibular disorders. Full article

Low-level laser auriculotherapy (LLLT-AT) is a non-invasive intervention increasingly explored for the management of musculoskeletal pain and psycho-emotional symptoms, which frequently coexist in myogenic temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). This randomized, assessor-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluated the effectiveness of LLLT-AT as an adjunct to manual therapy in improving pressure pain threshold (PPT) and anxiety in individuals with myogenic TMDs. Forty-four participants with myogenic TMDs and clinically relevant anxiety were randomly allocated to an experimental group receiving LLLT-AT combined with a standardized myofascial release protocol (n =21) or to a control group receiving sham LLLT-AT with the same manual therapy (n =23). Interventions were delivered twice weekly for three weeks. Primary outcomes were PPT, assessed by pressure algometry, and anxiety, measured using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder–7 (GAD-7) scale. Secondary outcomes included maximum mouth opening range of motion (MMOROM) and mandibular functional limitation assessed by the Jaw Functional Limitation Scale–8 (JFLS-8). Outcomes were evaluated at baseline, post-intervention, and at a four-week follow-up. Both groups demonstrated significant within-group improvements in PPT, MMOROM, and JFLS-8 over time (p < 0.05), with no significant between-group differences (p > 0.05). Between-group analyses showed greater reductions in anxiety in the LLLT-AT group at post-intervention (p = 0.02; Hedges’ g = −1.35) and follow-up (p = 0.02; Hedges’ g = −1.68). LLLT-AT did not confer additional mechanical or functional benefits but was associated with greater reductions in anxiety when used as an adjunct to manual therapy. Full article

Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) is a multifactorial degenerative disorder characterized by progressive cartilage degradation, subchondral bone remodeling, and chronic inflammation, leading to pain and functional impairment in affected individuals. Despite its clinical impact, effective disease-modifying treatments remain limited, highlighting the need for innovative therapeutic approaches for treating this condition in the future. This manuscript examines the biological rationale, clinical applications, and therapeutic potential of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and injectable platelet-rich fibrin (i-PRF) in the management of TMJ-OA. As autologous platelet-derived biomaterials, PRP and i-PRF contain high concentrations of growth factors and bioactive molecules that can modulate inflammatory responses and support tissue repair. PRP is associated with a relatively rapid release of these mediators, whereas i-PRF forms a fibrin matrix that may enable a more sustained release profile. Current clinical evidence suggests that both therapies show potential to contribute to pain reduction and may facilitate improvements in mandibular function. However, substantial heterogeneity in preparation protocols, study designs, and outcome measures limits the comparability and generalizability of these findings to the general population. Overall, PRP and i-PRF represent promising, minimally invasive regenerative strategies for managing TMJ-OA. Full article

Background/Objectives: Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is an ultra-rare genetic disorder causing progressive heterotopic ossification. The dental phenotype has never been systematically characterised. We quantified dental pathologies and oral health-related quality of life across three age groups of genetically confirmed FOP patients and compared them with 156 matched healthy controls (2022–2025). Methods: A total of 52 FOP patients (Group I: 1–5 y, n = 14; Group II: 6–17 y, n = 21; Group III: 18–35 y, n = 17) underwent standardised dental examination (Decayed, Missing, and Filled Teeth index (DMFT), Oral Hygiene Index Simplified (OHI-S), Angle classification, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) assessment), computed tomography (CT) densitometry, sialometry, salivary crystal analysis, and Oral Health Impact Profile-14 (OHIP-14). Statistical analysis used Kruskal–Wallis, Mann–Whitney U, Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) correction, and effect sizes. Results: Caries (DMFT ≥ 4) was highly prevalent across all FOP groups (82–86%) and significantly higher than in controls (84.6% vs. 38.5%, p < 0.001). Chronic stomatitis showed large age-group differences: 7.1% in Group I vs. 100% in Group III (p < 0.001); it was universal in FOP adults vs. 6.4% in controls. Enamel hypoplasia (21.4% → 58.8%) and Angle class II malocclusion (0% → 47.1%) also showed large age-group differences. Total TMJ disorders were observed in 7.1% of Group I and 100% of Group III (p < 0.001); maximal mouth opening was lower by 17.4 mm in Group III (Cohen’s d = 2.1). Salivary flow rate was 20% lower in adults (0.35 → 0.28 mL/min, p = 0.01). Calcium phosphate crystals were detected in 3/17 adults (17.6%) and showed a preliminary correlation with CT calcification grade (ρ = 0.67, p = 0.003); given the small number of crystal-positive patients, this finding should be considered hypothesis-generating. OHIP-14 total score was higher (worse) in Group III (48.9 vs. 12.4 in Group I, Cohen’s d = 1.95). Conclusions: This cross-sectional study provides a systematic characterisation of the dental phenotype in FOP across three age groups. It shows that chronic stomatitis and TMJ dysfunction become nearly universal by early adulthood, severely impairing quality of life. The correlation between salivary calcium phosphate crystals and CT calcification generates the hypothesis of a non-invasive biomarker, requiring prospective validation. The proposed clinical phenotype and minimally invasive recommendations provide a framework for safer dental management of FOP patients. Full article

Background/Objectives: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by motor and non-motor symptoms, including pain. Temporomandibular disorder (TMD)-like pain, defined as self-reported pain modified by jaw activities, has been suggested to be more prevalent in PD, but its association with PD severity remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between pain modified by jaw activities and PD severity and the temporal stability of such pain in PD. Methods: This prospective study recruited 28 individuals with PD. Motor symptom severity and disability levels were evaluated using the modified Hoehn and Yahr (mHY) staging and modified Rankin Scale (mRS), respectively. Based on the diagnostic criteria for TMD, a questionnaire assessing pain modified by jaw activities and clinical examination were utilised. Pain modified by jaw activities was reassessed at one, two, and three months. Statistical analyses included Spearman’s rank correlation test and Friedman test, with p < 0.05 considered significant. Results: The participants’ mean age was 69.2 ± 9.6 years; 53.6% were male. Eight participants reported pain modified by jaw activities. Clinical examination identified painful palpation sites in 14 participants, most commonly in the masseter muscle body. Pain modified by jaw activity count showed significant positive correlations with mHY stage (rho = 0.48, p = 0.015) and mRS score (rho = 0.41, p = 0.04). Twenty-four participants completed follow-up, with no significant changes in pain reports over three months. Conclusions: Some individuals with PD may experience persistent TMD-like pain, which is correlated with motor symptom severity and disability levels, highlighting the importance of routine TMD screening in PD. Full article

Background/Objectives: Skeletal Class II malocclusion due to mandibular retrusion is frequently treated with functional appliances, yet their impact on temporomandibular joint (TMJ) structures, specifically the articular disc, remains debated. This systematic review aimed to critically assess quantitative morphological and positional TMJ changes (disc, condyle and glenoid fossa) evaluated with CBCT or MRI in growing skeletal Class II patients treated with functional appliances and to explore whether these changes are associated with the onset or prevention of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). Methods: The review followed PRISMA guidelines and was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251028803). Electronic searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Embase from inception to December 2025, complemented by manual screening. Inclusion criteria comprised controlled clinical studies in patients aged 8–16 years with skeletal Class II malocclusion due to mandibular deficiency, treated with removable or fixed functional appliances, with pre- and post-CBCT/MRI quantitative TMJ assessment. Risk of bias was evaluated using RoB 2 (RCTs) and ROBINS-I (non-randomized studies); overall certainty was appraised with GRADE. Results: From 937 records, 8 studies met the inclusion criteria. Articular disc outcomes were reported in fewer studies: disc position/morphology was generally stable, and when changes were observed they were favourable (partial improvement/normalization in selected cases). Importantly, no included study reported new treatment-induced disc displacement or new-onset TMD symptoms at the end of treatment. Across studies, the most consistent findings concerned condylar adaptations, commonly described as anterior and/or superior positional changes and remodelling of the condyle–fossa unit. Evidence certainty was limited by heterogeneity and methodological constraints, resulting in low to very low confidence for several outcomes. Conclusions: Functional appliance therapy in growing skeletal Class II patients may be associated with TMJ adaptations, predominantly involving the mandibular condyle, while limited available data may suggest disc stability and no reported short-term clinical TMD onset in included controlled studies. However, due to the limited and heterogeneous evidence base, these findings should be interpreted cautiously, and well-designed prospective studies with standardized 3D imaging outcomes and longer follow-up are needed, particularly for disc-specific endpoints. Full article

Background and Objectives: Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) are prevalent conditions affecting the temporomandibular joint and associated musculature, arising from a complex interplay of biomechanical, neuromuscular, and psychosocial factors. Increasing evidence supports functional interconnections among the TMJ, cervical spine, and shoulder girdle, suggesting that dysfunction in one region may influence others; however, these relationships remain incompletely understood. This study aimed to evaluate the association between scapulohumeral trauma, postural abnormalities, and TMDs, and to assess their evolution following interdisciplinary rehabilitation. Materials and Methods: A retrospective observational study with prospective follow-up was conducted in patients with scapulohumeral fractures associated with TMD and postural abnormalities. Postural parameters and the clinical features of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) were evaluated at baseline and follow-up using a structured clinical assessment informed by the DC/TMD framework, together with clinical examination, electromyographic analysis, and mandibular mobility measurements. Postural evaluation was performed using digital baropodometric analysis (Free Med™ platform with FreeStep™ software, standard Medica sensor, Rome, Italy. Patients received individualized multidisciplinary treatment, including orthopaedic rehabilitation, occlusal splint therapy, physiotherapy (twice weekly), pharmacological management, and odonto-periodontal care. Statistical analyses were performed using non-parametric tests (p < 0.05). Results: Significant postural improvement was observed (p < 0.01), with the proportion of patients with normal posture increasing from 0% to 22.2% and the proportion with moderate forward lean decreasing from 53.3% to 15.6%. TMD severity decreased progressively across evaluations (Friedman χ² = 72.35, p < 0.01). No statistically significant differences were found between treatment groups with respect to postural outcomes, although descriptive differences in TMD improvement were observed at later evaluation points. Conclusions: Interdisciplinary rehabilitation was associated with significant improvements in both postural alignment and TMD severity. Scapulohumeral trauma may be associated with alterations in TMJ function and overall posture, while multimodal therapy supports functional recovery. Further randomized controlled studies are needed to confirm these findings. Full article

Background/Objectives: Intra-articular injectable platelet-rich fibrin (I-PRF) is increasingly used in the management of joint-origin temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders, but variability in follow-up TMJ disease severity remains substantial. This study assessed whether baseline oral behaviors were associated with follow-up TMJ disease severity after intra-articular I-PRF therapy, using baseline-adjusted analyses of follow-up HI. Methods: This secondary exploratory cohort analysis was conducted within the framework of a registered clinical trial (NCT05883982). Fifty-one consecutive adult patients treated with intra-articular I-PRF were included. Baseline oral behaviors were assessed using the Oral Behaviors Checklist (OBC-21), and TMJ disease severity was quantified using the Helkimo Index (HI) at baseline and final follow-up. Associations between baseline predictors and follow-up HI were evaluated using baseline-adjusted linear regression models including baseline HI as a covariate. Results: Mean (SD) HI decreased descriptively from 7.0 (6.2) at baseline to 2.5 (3.0) at final follow-up (p < 0.001). Baseline HI was strongly associated with follow-up HI (β = 0.32, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.41, p < 0.001), whereas symptom duration (β = 0.02, 95% CI −0.10 to 0.15, p = 0.70) and injection laterality (β = −0.42, 95% CI −1.73 to 0.89, p = 0.52) were not. No OBC-21 item showed a clear baseline-adjusted association with follow-up HI after correction for multiple comparisons. The largest absolute baseline-adjusted regression coefficients were observed for awake bruxism (β = 0.80, 95% CI 0.08 to 1.52, FDR-adjusted p = 0.60) and singing (β = −0.58, 95% CI −1.41 to 0.25, FDR-adjusted p = 0.83). Conclusions: Baseline oral behaviors did not emerge as strong standalone baseline-adjusted factors associated with follow-up HI after intra-articular I-PRF therapy. However, the observed associations may still have been influenced by baseline disease severity dimensions not fully captured by total baseline HI, such as structural disease stage, pain intensity, psychosocial burden, or other unmeasured clinical severity features. The observed nominal and directional item-level patterns should be interpreted only as hypothesis-generating and require confirmation in larger, better-characterized cohorts. Full article

Background: Myogenous temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) are a common subtype of orofacial pain. Evidence regarding treatment with botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) remains heterogeneous, and its use is generally limited to refractory cases. This study evaluated 12-month clinical outcomes following an incobotulinumtoxinA protocol (the Ângelo Botulinum Toxin Protocol^®) in adults with DC/TMD-confirmed myogenous TMD unresponsive to conservative therapy. Methods: This retrospective observational study reviewed records from 98 adults treated with incobotulinumtoxinA following the predefined injection protocol. All patients had failed ≥ 3 months of conservative management and completed ≥ 12 months of follow-up. Outcomes included myalgia severity (0–3), patient-reported orofacial pain intensity (VAS 0–10), and maximum mouth opening (MMO). Favorable outcome criteria required myalgia 0–1 or VAS ≤ 2 and MMO ≥ 35 mm. Results: Myalgia significantly decreased at 12 months (2.69 ± 0.64 to 0.43 ± 0.85; p < 0.001). Patient-reported orofacial pain intensity also improved (2.44 ± 2.54 to 0.37 ± 1.33; p < 0.001). MMO remained stable, indicating preserved mandibular mobility. Overall, 79.6% of patients met the predefined favorable outcome criteria. Reintervention was required in 12 patients; 7 received additional incobotulinumtoxinA injections, and 5 underwent TMJ arthrocentesis. No complications were observed. Conclusion: This protocol was associated with improvements in muscular pain and orofacial discomfort while preserving mandibular mobility. However, given the retrospective design and absence of a control group, these findings should be interpreted as hypothesis generating. Full article

Background: The development of robust artificial intelligence (AI) models for diagnosing Temporomandibular Disorders (TMDs) is severely constrained by data scarcity and patient privacy regulations. Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT), the gold standard for assessing osseous changes in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), inherently contains sensitive biometric facial features, making de-identification difficult without losing critical anatomical information. This study aims to develop and evaluate TMJCTGenerator, a specialized latent diffusion model (LDM) framework designed to synthesize high-fidelity, diverse, and anonymous TMJ CBCT images. We hypothesize that this LDM approach can achieve superior anatomical fidelity and diversity compared to traditional generative adversarial network (GAN)- and variational autoencoder (VAE)-based methods, specifically in capturing fine osseous details within sagittal and coronal views of the mandibular condyle. Methods: A training dataset comprising 348 anonymized CBCT volumes was obtained in this retrospective comparative study to extract high-resolution sagittal and coronal regions of interest of the mandibular condyle. An independent test set of 39 anonymized CBCT volumes was further included. We developed a class-conditional LDM that integrates a pre-trained VAE for perceptual compression with a conditional U-Net for iterative denoising in the latent space. Performance was evaluated via qualitative anatomical fidelity assessment, Fréchet Inception Distance (FID), and a blinded Visual Turing test conducted by experienced clinicians to determine the distinguishability of synthetic images from real data. Results: Qualitative analysis revealed that TMJCTGenerator produced images with superior sharpness and anatomical consistency compared to baseline models, successfully reconstructing fine bone structures essential for diagnosing degenerative joint disease. TMJCTGenerator achieved lower FID scores than both VAE and GAN baselines. In the visual Turing test, clinicians were unable to reliably distinguish the generated images from real scans, and non-inferiority analysis confirmed that the synthetic data were statistically non-inferior to real data. Furthermore, TMJCTGenerator demonstrated the capability to generate diverse pathological conditions, ranging from normal anatomy to severe osteoarthritic changes. Conclusions: The proposed LDM framework effectively addresses the data scarcity and privacy bottlenecks in TMJ AI research by generating realistic, fully anonymous medical imaging data. TMJCTGenerator outperforms traditional generative methods in both visual fidelity and diversity, offering a viable solution for training downstream diagnostic algorithms. The source code and pre-trained models of TMJCTGenerator have been made open-source. Full article

Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) are the prevalent causes of orofacial pain and dysfunction of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and masticatory muscles. Previous studies have revealed that proinflammatory cytokines play a key role in promoting inflammation, pain, and degeneration within the TMJ. In this context, the present systematic review synthesizes current evidence on various cytokines involved in the pathophysiology of TMDs and evaluates their associations with clinical signs and structural TMJ damage. A PRISMA-guided search (PROSPERO: CRD420251163290) was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library to identify human-based, in vivo, and in vitro studies (January 2014 to September 2025) that assessed the roles of proinflammatory cytokines in TMDs. The following data were extracted from the identified studies: cytokine profiles, sampling methods, clinical outcomes, and TMJ structural changes. Study quality and risk of bias were systematically evaluated. A total of 15 studies (clinical, animal, and mechanistic) were included in the review. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-17 (IL-17) consistently emerged as the major contributors to synovitis, cartilage degradation, nociceptive sensitization, and bone resorption. Human studies showed that high levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and chemokines such as C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) were associated with TMJ pain, restricted mandibular motion, crepitus, malocclusion, and erosive changes on imaging. An increased ratio of TNF to soluble TNF receptor in synovial fluid correlated with both pain and condylar damage, suggesting that loss of cytokine control contributes to progressive joint destruction. TMDs, particularly inflammatory and degenerative subtypes, are cytokine-driven pathologies rather than purely mechanical disorders. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 are the promising candidate biomarkers of local inflammation and structural joint pathology. Standardized longitudinal studies are required to validate cytokine-based diagnostics and develop anti-cytokine therapeutics. Full article