Domestic Water Service Delivery Indicators and Frameworks for Monitoring, Evaluation, Policy and Planning: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Frameworks for Monitoring Water Services: A History
2.1. Measuring and Ranking Water Services along Indicators (1991 and 1996)
2.2. Water Service Levels Introduced (2003)
Service level | Access | Needs met | Level of health concern |
---|---|---|---|
No access (quantity collected often below 5 L/c/d) | More than 1,000 m or 30 min total collection time | Consumption—cannot be assured Hygiene—not possible (unless practiced at source) | Very high |
Basic access (average quantity unlikely to exceed 20 L/c/d) | Between 100 and 1,000 m or 5 to 30 min total collection time | Consumption—should be assured Hygiene—hand washing and basic food hygiene possible; laundry/bathing difficult to assure unless carried out at source | High |
Intermediate access (average quantity about 50 L/c/d) | Water delivered through one tap on plot (or within 100 m or 5 min total collection time | Consumption—assured Hygiene—all basic personal and food hygiene assured; laundry and bathing should also be assured | Low |
Optimal access (average quantity 100 L/c/d and above) | Water supplied through multiple taps continuously | Consumption—all needs met Hygiene—all needs should be met | Very low |
2.3. A Human Rights Framework for Water (2003, 2010)
Indicator | Definition |
---|---|
Availability | The water supply for each person must be sufficient and continuous for personal and domestic uses. These uses ordinarily include drinking, personal sanitation, washing of clothes, food preparation, personal and household hygiene. According to the WHO, between 50 and 100 L of water per person per day are needed to ensure basic needs are met and few health concerns arise [29]. |
Quality | The water required for personal or domestic use must be safe, therefore free from micro-organisms, chemical substances and radiological hazards that constitute a threat to a person’s health. Measures of drinking-water safety are usually defined by national and/or local standards for drinking-water quality. The World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality provide a basis for the development of national standards. |
Accessibility | Water facilities must be accessible to everyone without discrimination. Accessibility has overlapping dimensions: physical, economic, and information. Sufficient and safe water must be accessible within the vicinity of the household and affordable. According to WHO, the water source has to be within 1,000 m of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 min. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) suggests that water costs should not exceed 3 per cent of household income. Accessibility includes the right to seek, receive and impart information concerning water issues. |
Non-discrimination and equality | It is the obligation of States to guarantee that the right to water is enjoyed without discrimination and equally between men and women and proscribes any discrimination which has the effect of nullifying or impairing the equal enjoyment or exercise of the right to water. |
2.4. The WHO-UNICEF Framework (2008 et seq.)
2.5. A Framework for Multiple Use Services (2007 and 2009)
2.6. Water Service Ladders (2008 and 2009)
3. Water Service Indicators
3.1. Service Type (Infrastructure Classification)
3.2. Accessibility
3.3. Continuity and Reliability
3.4. Water Safety (Quality & Risk)
3.4.1. Measures of Drinking Water Quality
WHO water quality risk levels | |
---|---|
Risk level | E. coli (CFU/100 mL) |
Conformity | <1 |
Low | 1–10 |
Intermediate | 11–100 |
High | 101–1,000 |
Very High | >1,000 |
3.4.2. Sanitary Risk
3.4.3. Combined Analysis
3.5. Quantity
3.6. Equity, Non-Discrimination
3.7. Cost and Affordability
4. Water Service Delivery Indicators, Frameworks and Indices: Benefits and Challenges for Implementation, Policy, and Planning
4.1. A Scale for Each Indicator
4.2. Monitoring Framework Approaches
- The first is the use of service levels as a simple summary description for which the JMP approach provides a well-recognized example [2]. The value of its simplicity in communication is evident as it maximizes comparability over time and space. It is also easily collected across geographical settings. Its weakness is the counter-face of that simplicity; it does not provide the more nuanced analysis of the factors that influence public health, economic development, and fulfillment of human rights.
- The second is a “level platform” of a set of indicators that typically include service type, safety, quantity, accessibility, reliability or continuity of service, affordability, and more recently equity and non-discrimination. The level platform enables all concerns to be monitored and additional concerns to be included at limited risk to integrity. Many individual indicators are inter-dependent, however, and subsequent indicators are likely to have lesser impact on overall outcome. However these same factors are its weaknesses.
- The third attempts to take some account of inter-dependencies and is based on the concept that a limited number of indicators can be meaningfully distinguished because certain indicators are derivatives of others [26]. The “value” of each indicator category can be discounted by lesser degrees of quality or continuity/reliability. In its derivation it assumes for example that access and continuity/reliability determine quantity and thus there is no merit in inclusion of quantity as a separate parameter. This is important at the national and international level where limited resources are available for monitoring. It is also useful to provide some logical relationship among indicators. The evident weakness is that while this derivation is logical, the evidence for the specific inter-dependencies is weak and may to a greater or lesser extent be context-specific in practice.
- The fourth takes a single measure from all indicators measured. For example, the IRC water service framework takes the worst performing indicator’s level to measure the service delivered [20]. The advantage is twofold: there is a single value for a service and this value can be disaggregated and the value for each indicator revealed. The disadvantages of taking the worst valued indicator are that detail on all other indicators measured is lost and their benefits are ignored.
4.3. Combination of Indicators into an Index
4.4. Evaluating Monitoring Frameworks
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Kayser, G.L.; Moriarty, P.; Fonseca, C.; Bartram, J. Domestic Water Service Delivery Indicators and Frameworks for Monitoring, Evaluation, Policy and Planning: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 4812-4835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10104812
Kayser GL, Moriarty P, Fonseca C, Bartram J. Domestic Water Service Delivery Indicators and Frameworks for Monitoring, Evaluation, Policy and Planning: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2013; 10(10):4812-4835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10104812
Chicago/Turabian StyleKayser, Georgia L., Patrick Moriarty, Catarina Fonseca, and Jamie Bartram. 2013. "Domestic Water Service Delivery Indicators and Frameworks for Monitoring, Evaluation, Policy and Planning: A Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 10, no. 10: 4812-4835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10104812