Changing Diet Quality in China during 2004–2011
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Subjects
2.2. Assessment of Food Consumption and Nutrient Intake
2.3. Components, Cut-Off Values and Scoring of the DQI
2.3.1. Diet Variety
2.3.2. Fruits and Vegetables
2.3.3. Total Energy, Calcium
2.3.4. Total Carbohydrates, Total Fat, Saturated Fat, and Protein
2.3.5. Sodium and Alcohol
2.4. Co-Variates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis of Confounders
3.2. Trend of DQI Scores and Its Components
3.3. Analysis of the DQI Scores of Chinese Residents Regarding Various Aspects
3.4. Analysis of the Association between Co-Variants and the DQI Scores
4. Discussion
4.1. The Change of the Total DQI Score over the Eight-Year Period
4.2. The Factors Associated with DQI Scores
4.3. Limitation of the Present Study
4.4. The Advantages of the Present Study
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Control Variables | DQI (<−20) | DQI (−20~−10) | DQI (−10~0) | DQI (>0) | Total | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | |
Income | 6648 | 9053 | 8581 | 10,930 | 10,155 | 11,998 | 10,335 | 12,606 | 8821 | 11,255 |
Activity level 2 | 3.24 | 0.88 | 2.95 | 0.90 | 2.78 | 0.88 | 2.57 | 0.80 | 2.90 | 0.90 |
Education 3 | 1.82 | 0.76 | 1.98 | 0.78 | 2.10 | 0.79 | 2.19 | 0.78 | 2.02 | 0.79 |
Age | 42.19 | 10.66 | 42.75 | 10.33 | 43.03 | 10.35 | 43.15 | 10.05 | 42.75 | 10.37 |
Gender 4 | ||||||||||
Male (%) | 13.66 | 0.00 | 10.42 | 0.00 | 9.87 | 0.00 | 12.95 | 0.00 | 46.90 | 0.00 |
Female (%) | 15.57 | 0.00 | 12.29 | 0.00 | 11.18 | 0.00 | 14.06 | 0.00 | 53.10 | 0.00 |
BMI | 23.38 | 3.56 | 23.51 | 3.69 | 23.61 | 3.98 | 23.73 | 3.89 | 23.55 | 3.77 |
Children ratio | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.17 |
Old people ratio | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.13 |
Family size | 4.47 | 1.75 | 4.22 | 1.70 | 3.98 | 1.57 | 3.78 | 1.48 | 4.12 | 1.66 |
Householder status | ||||||||||
Activity level 2 | 3.16 | 1.12 | 2.81 | 1.19 | 2.60 | 1.20 | 2.32 | 1.14 | 2.73 | 1.20 |
Education 3 | 1.79 | 0.76 | 1.95 | 0.78 | 2.08 | 0.79 | 2.17 | 0.78 | 1.99 | 0.79 |
Age | 45.98 | 8.87 | 46.13 | 8.69 | 46.47 | 8.66 | 46.32 | 8.38 | 46.21 | 8.65 |
Gender 4 | ||||||||||
Male (%) | 19.96 | 0.00 | 15.30 | 0.00 | 14.77 | 0.00 | 18.46 | 0.00 | 68.49 | 0.00 |
Female (%) | 9.27 | 0.00 | 7.42 | 0.00 | 6.28 | 0.00 | 8.54 | 0.00 | 31.51 | 0.00 |
Cook status | ||||||||||
Activity level 2 | 3.04 | 1.09 | 2.68 | 1.14 | 2.45 | 1.12 | 2.19 | 1.07 | 2.61 | 1.15 |
Education 3 | 1.64 | 0.73 | 1.83 | 0.78 | 1.95 | 0.80 | 2.04 | 0.81 | 1.86 | 0.79 |
Age | 43.70 | 8.50 | 44.25 | 8.33 | 44.70 | 8.08 | 44.89 | 7.96 | 44.36 | 8.24 |
Currently smoking 2 | ||||||||||
Yes (%) | 8.15 | 0.00 | 6.49 | 0.00 | 6.04 | 0.00 | 7.66 | 0.00 | 28.35 | 0.00 |
No (%) | 21.07 | 0.00 | 16.22 | 0.00 | 15.01 | 0.00 | 19.35 | 0.00 | 71.65 | 0.00 |
Region 4 | ||||||||||
South (%) | 13.06 | 0.00 | 12.67 | 0.00 | 12.56 | 0.00 | 16.56 | 0.00 | 54.85 | 0.00 |
North (%) | 16.17 | 0.00 | 10.05 | 0.00 | 8.49 | 0.00 | 10.45 | 0.00 | 45.15 | 0.00 |
Urbanization index 5 | 59.20 | 19.15 | 65.56 | 19.71 | 69.82 | 19.57 | 74.26 | 18.27 | 66.95 | 20.01 |
Number of observations | 4043 | 3142 | 2912 | 3736 | 13,833 |
Role | Components | 2004 (n = 3083) | 2006 (n = 3069) | 2009 (n = 3319) | 2011 (n = 4362) | p 2 | Net Change 3 | Contribution 4 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | Mean | SD 1 | |||||
Total DQI score | −9.24 | 19.31 | −7.22 | 18.65 | −13.13 | 15.88 | −13.78 | 15.00 | 0.15 | −4.54 | − | |
under-nutrition | Diet variety | −6.84 | 3.69 | −6.42 | 3.79 | −5.60 | 3.64 | −5.42 | 3.68 | 0.01 | 1.42 | + |
Fruit and vegetables | −5.74 | 3.74 | −5.49 | 3.70 | −5.53 | 3.60 | −6.90 | 3.72 | 0.34 | −1.16 | − | |
Protein | −0.51 | 1.85 | −0.53 | 1.89 | −0.46 | 1.84 | −0.34 | 1.61 | 0.12 | 0.17 | + | |
Calcium | −7.88 | 3.56 | −8.10 | 3.39 | −8.42 | 3.16 | −8.93 | 2.71 | 0.02 | −1.05 | − | |
over-nutrition | Saturated fat | 0.59 | 2.20 | 0.73 | 2.44 | 0.04 | 0.57 | 0.02 | 0.43 | 0.12 | −0.57 | + |
Sodium | 7.44 | 3.69 | 6.91 | 3.78 | 0.20 | 1.17 | 0.15 | 1.00 | 0.06 | −7.29 | + | |
Alcohol | 0.39 | 1.40 | 0.39 | 1.42 | 0.32 | 1.24 | 0.31 | 1.25 | 0.05 | −0.08 | + | |
under- and over-nutrition | Energy | −1.78 | 5.66 | −1.91 | 5.63 | −2.12 | 5.60 | −3.40 | 5.77 | 0.14 | −1.62 | − |
Total carbohydrate | 1.29 | 5.77 | 2.33 | 5.84 | 2.92 | 5.26 | 4.49 | 5.41 | 0.03 | 3.20 | − | |
Total fat | 3.79 | 5.97 | 4.86 | 5.77 | 5.53 | 5.23 | 6.24 | 5.04 | 0.01 | 2.45 | − |
Control Variables | Coefficient | 95% CI | p |
---|---|---|---|
Income 1 | |||
Middle income | 4.816 | (3.966, 5.666) | <0.001 |
High income | 5.316 | (4.327, 6.304) | <0.001 |
Activity level 2 | −1.891 | (−2.478, −1.304) | <0.001 |
Education 3 | 0.257 | (−0.300, 0.814) | 0.366 |
Age 4 | 1.318 | (0.595, 2.042) | <0.001 |
Gender 5 | 0.187 | (−0.469, 0.843) | 0.576 |
BMI 6 | |||
Underweight | −0.125 | (−1.505, 1.256) | 0.859 |
Overweight | 1.513 | (0.892, 2.134) | <0.001 |
Obesity | 1.883 | (0.962, 2.805) | <0.001 |
Children ratio | −2.631 | (−4.913, −0.349) | 0.024 |
Old people ratio | −2.609 | (−5.329, 0.111) | 0.060 |
Family size 7 | |||
4–5 | −2.128 | (−2.935, −1.321) | <0.001 |
6–15 | −3.389 | (−4.504, −2.274) | <0.001 |
Householder status | |||
Activity level 2 | 0.041 | (−0.719, 0.801) | 0.916 |
Education 3 | 0.469 | (−0.238, 1.176) | 0.193 |
Age 4 | −0.052 | (−0.112, 0.009) | 0.095 |
Gender 5 | 0.151 | (−0.626, 0.927) | 0.703 |
Cook status | |||
Activity level 2 | −1.602 | (−2.352, −0.852) | <0.001 |
Education 3 | 0.701 | (0.050, 1.352) | 0.035 |
Age 4 | 0.079 | (0.019, 0.139) | 0.010 |
Currently smoking 8 | 0.580 | (−0.208, 1.368) | 0.149 |
Year 9 | −1.606 | (−1.741, −1.471) | <0.001 |
Region 10 | 5.200 | (4.450, 5.949) | <0.001 |
Urbanization index 11 | 0.097 | (0.071, 0.123) | <0.001 |
constant | −14.863 | (−18.715, −11.011) | <0.001 |
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Huang, Y.; Wang, H.; Tian, X. Changing Diet Quality in China during 2004–2011. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010013
Huang Y, Wang H, Tian X. Changing Diet Quality in China during 2004–2011. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(1):13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010013
Chicago/Turabian StyleHuang, Yingying, Hui Wang, and Xu Tian. 2017. "Changing Diet Quality in China during 2004–2011" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 1: 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010013