Can Sanitary Surveys Replace Water Quality Testing? Evidence from Kisii, Kenya
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Sample Collection and Analysis
2.4. Sanitary Survey
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Water Quality by Water Source Types
3.2. Sanitary Risk Factors
3.2.1. Dug Wells
3.2.2. Springs
3.2.3. Rainwater Harvesting Systems
3.3. Composite Risk Scores
3.4. Variability within Sources
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dug Wells (Including Open Wells and Those with A Handpump) b | ||
1 | Unprotected by masonry | Is the well unprotected by masonry or concrete wall? |
2 | Latrine | Is there a latrine <10 m of the well? a |
3 | Lack cover | Does the well have a cover? |
4 | Nearest latrine higher | Is the nearest latrine on higher ground than the well? a |
5 | Pollution | Are there any other source of pollution (e.g., animal excreta, rubbish) <10 m of the well? a |
6 | Stagnant water | Is there stagnant water <2 m of the well? a |
7 | Inadequate parapet | Is the wall (parapet) around the well inadequate, allowing surface water to enter the well? a |
8 | Floor < 1 m | Is the concrete floor <1 m wide around the well (applicable for protected wells)? a |
9 | Walls unsealed | Are the walls of the well inadequately sealed at any point for 3 m below ground? a |
10 | Cracks | Are there any cracks in the concrete floor around the well that could permit water to enter the well? a |
11 | Rope and bucket | Are the rope and bucket left in such a position that they may become contaminated? a |
12 | Unfenced | Does the installation lack fencing? a |
13 | Animals grazing | Were animals grazing around the well <2 m at the time of visit? |
14 | Clothes washing | Were people washing clothes <2 m around the well at the time of visit? |
15 | Open defecation | Is there open defecation uphill of the site <2 m? |
16 | Flooding | Is the site unprotected against flooding (located in a depression or along storm water pathway)? |
17 | Dirty environment | Is the environment around the well dirty? |
Springs | ||
1 | Unprotected | Is the spring source unprotected by masonry or concrete wall or spring box and therefore open to surface contamination? a |
2 | Masonry faulty | Is the masonry protecting the spring source faulty? a |
3 | Unfenced | Is the area around the spring unfenced? a |
4 | Animals access | Can animals have access to within 10 m of the spring source? a |
5 | Lack diversion ditch | Does the spring lack a surface water diversion ditch above it, or (if present) is it nonfunctional? a |
6 | Immediate latrine uphill | Are there any latrines uphill of the spring? a |
7 | Nearest visible latrine higher | Is the nearest latrine on higher ground than the well? |
8 | Pollution | Are there any other source of pollution (e.g., animal excreta, rubbish) within 10 m of the well? |
9 | Animals grazing | Are animals grazing <2 m arround the spring? |
10 | Clothes washing | Are people washing clothes <2 m uphill of the spring? |
11 | Open defecation | Is there open defecation uphill the site? |
12 | Human activity | Are children playing arround the spring? |
13 | Ponding | Is the spring collection area not developed to minimize ponding of surface water? |
14 | Vegetation | Is the spring a collection area with deep-rooted vegetation? |
Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWH) | ||
1 | Roof contamination | Is there any visible contamination of the roof catchment area (plants, dirt, or excreta)? a |
2 | Dirty gutters | Are the guttering channels that collect water dirty? a |
3 | Lack cover | Is there any other point of entry to the tank that is not properly covered? a |
4 | Defective tap | Is the tap leaking or otherwise defective? a |
5 | Drainage | Is the water collection area inadequately drained? a |
6 | Pollution | Is there any source of pollution around the tank or water collection area (e.g., excreta)? |
7 | Roof type | Is the type of roof thatched (instead of tarred)? |
8 | Tank opening | Is the opening to the tank not covered?/Is the access hatch not sealed to prevent entry of contaminants? |
Water Source | n | TTC (CFU/100 mL) | TDS (mg/L) | Turbidity (NTU) | pH | Temperature (°C) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Pos | Med | Mean (sd) a | Med | Range | Med | Range | Med | Range | Med | Range | ||
Dug wells | 34 | 100% | 265 | 157 (3) | 46 | 6–302 | 10.8 | 2.1–173.0 | 5.7 | 5–6.31 | 22.9 | 17.7–26.7 |
Springs | 41 | 95% | 83 | 0 (-) | 44 | 23–122 | 5.7 | 0.9–49.3 | 5.7 | 5.2–6.51 | 23.4 | 18.8–28.8 |
RWH | 31 | 61% | 2 | 0 (-) | 6 | 2–15 | 3.8 | 2–7.6 | 6.4 | 5.4–7.17 | 22.1 | 10.4–26.1 |
All sources | 106 b | 87% | 107 | 23 (1) | 38 | 2–303 | 5.2 | 0.9–173.0 | 5.8 | 5–7.17 | 23 | 10.4–28.8 |
Dug Wells | Springs | Rainwater Harvesting | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sanitary Risk | Percent of Sources (n = 20) | p a | Sanitary Risk | Percent of Sources (n = 25) | p a | Sanitary Risk | Percent of Sources (n = 16) | p a | |
1 | Unprotected by masonry | 50% | 0.88 | Unprotected | 44% | 0.07 | Roof contamination | 62% | 0.70 |
2 | Latrine nearby | 80% | 0.29 | Masonry faulty | 7% b | 0.78 | Dirty gutters | 6% | 0.28 |
3 | Lack cover | 60% | 0.81 | Unfenced | 88% | 0.28 | Lack cover | 75% | 0.71 |
4 | Nearest latrine higher | 60% | 0.64 | Animals access | 48% | 0.51 | Defective tap | 19% | 0.64 |
5 | Pollution | 70% | 0.23 | Lack diversion ditch | 96% | 0.68 | Drainage | 38% | 0.25 |
6 | Stagnant water | 60% | 0.33 | Latrines uphill | 40% | 0.66 | Pollution | 0% | - |
7 | Inadequate parapet | 70% | 0.77 | Nearest latrine higher | 28% | 0.22 | Roof type | 0% | - |
8 | Floor < 1 m | 0% b | - | Pollution | 24% | 0.07 | Tank opening | 56% | 0.46 |
9 | Walls unsealed | 95% | 0.29 | Animals grazing | 8% | 0.96 | |||
10 | Cracks | 10% b | 0.72 | Clothes washing | 36% | 0.44 | |||
11 | Rope and bucket | 84% c | 0.5 | Open defecation | 4% | 0.68 | |||
12 | Unfenced | 100% | - | Human activity | 84% | 0.15 | |||
13 | Animals grazing | 40% | 0.72 | Ponding | 43% b | 1 | |||
14 | Clothes washing | 5% | 1 | Vegetation | 58% d | 0.58 | |||
15 | Open defecation | 5% | 0.25 | ||||||
16 | Flooding | 60% | 0.61 | ||||||
17 | Dirty environment | 75% | 0.57 | ||||||
Mean risk score: | 58% | 45% | 32% |
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Misati, A.G.; Ogendi, G.; Peletz, R.; Khush, R.; Kumpel, E. Can Sanitary Surveys Replace Water Quality Testing? Evidence from Kisii, Kenya. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020152
Misati AG, Ogendi G, Peletz R, Khush R, Kumpel E. Can Sanitary Surveys Replace Water Quality Testing? Evidence from Kisii, Kenya. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(2):152. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020152
Chicago/Turabian StyleMisati, Aaron Gichaba, George Ogendi, Rachel Peletz, Ranjiv Khush, and Emily Kumpel. 2017. "Can Sanitary Surveys Replace Water Quality Testing? Evidence from Kisii, Kenya" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 2: 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020152