Expectations of the Inhabitants of South-Eastern Poland Regarding the Energy Market, in the Context of the COVID-19 Crisis

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the expectations of the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland in relation to the main trends emerging in the energy market, in a specific crisis situation resulting from the response to COVID-19. The time range of the research covered the period from March to December 2022, i.e., the time just after the official easing of the most drastic restrictions related to COVID-19 in Poland. The CAWI method was used in the study. Access to the survey form was granted to several dozen people, who invited other respondents to participate in the survey. A total of 732 questionnaires were collected, of which 637 were verified, meeting the research assumptions regarding the place of residence of the respondents. The study was correlational in nature, as it looked for relationships between the examined features, without the possibility of influencing the level of individual variables. As the study used non-probability sampling, the inferences apply only to the study group. Two research questions were formulated: (1) Did the COVID-19 crisis shape the expectations of the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland regarding the energy market, and were these expectations consistent with the policies of the state and the European Union? (2) Were perceptions of the energy market and social phenomena differentiated in terms of sex, place of residence, and type of heating in the respondent’s apartments? Statistical analyses of the collected material were performed using Statistica13.3 and MS Excel 19. The greatest support among respondents was recorded for the optimal use of the country’s own energy resources, and the development of energy networks, in conjunction with the expansion of its own energy potential, and improvement of energy efficiency. Respondents confirmed the need to increase the use of renewable energy sources. However, the EU trend of abandoning electricity production in nuclear power plants was not confirmed. This is also evidenced by Poland’s energy policy, which emphasizes the development of the nuclear energy market. Men were more positive than women about the implementation of nuclear energy in Poland. Women rated the development of RES use higher than men. Both women and men had a more positive attitude toward renewable energy than toward nuclear energy. Respondents living in rural areas assessed the development of RES higher and showed greater interest in increasing energy efficiency. The limitations of this study are that all the variables were measured simultaneously, so the study is cross-sectional, and additional attention may need to be paid to other causes of the studied phenomena.

1. Introduction

The 2020s began with a spectacular crisis on a global scale, caused by the COVID-19 disease. In order to limit the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, states and international organizations imposed a number of restrictions on the economy and social activity [1,2,3,4]. In this extraordinary situation, the tendency of society to submit to the orders of the authorities was varied and resulted from both the characteristics of individual people and the characteristics of various social groups [5]. Regardless of the difficult situation, energy needs have not decreased [6,7]. In addition, Russia’s aggression against Ukraine has deepened the crisis situation, especially since a large portion of the energy resources used in the European Union came from Russia. As a result, a number of countries have increased the use of fossil fuels, such as lignite and hard coal. At the same time, there was a significant increase in energy prices caused by a sharp jump in the prices of emission allowances, and within the framework of the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). At that time, the level of energy poverty in Europe increased [8]. The COVID-19 crisis directly affected all citizens, influenced their daily behavior, and changed social and economic realities.

In this situation, an important element of decision-making regarding the energy market is the social perception of this issue. The conducted social research took into account the specific period of the COVID-19 crisis, as well as the specific community of two regions of south-eastern Poland. The Podkarpackie and Lubelskie regions are peripheral, both in relation to the central areas of Poland, and the European Union [9]. They are characterized by a traditional social structure, low wages, a negative migration balance, a significant share of agriculture, and a large forest cover in the spatial structure [10,11]. Due to the specific social structure of the region, and the generally conservative beliefs of the inhabitants, differentiating features such as the sex of the respondents, place of residence, and type of heating in their homes, were taken into account in the research. Therefore, the expectations of the inhabitants of this area with regard to the energy market were the subject of this research, and the COVID-19 crisis was the background context of this issue.

The structure of this manuscript is as follows: 1. Introduction; 2. Literature review; 3. Research methodology; 4. Test results; 5. Discussion; 6. Conclusions; 7. Summary and Recommendations; and 8. Contributions and limitations.

2. Literature Review

2.1. COVID-19 as the Cause of the Economic and Social Crisis

The crisis is both an economic and a social phenomenon, with a negative overtone, and characterized by a diverse range of effects and responses [12,13]. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the global economy, causing the worst economic crisis in more than a century. It has led to a dramatic increase in social inequalities in countries and regions. The recovery from this crisis, like its initial economic impact, will also be uneven and complicated.

Literature research confirmed that during the pandemic over 10% of Poles showed a general lack of personal contact with other people, and 29.7% met people less than once a week. Nearly half of the surveyed Poles claimed that the pandemic caused them a sense of fear, sadness, frustration, loneliness, and boredom to a significant or moderate extent; 22% claimed that it significantly limited their daily activity, including physical activity, and 36%, that it did so moderately [14].

The effects of crises are not sex- and age-neutral. The pandemic deepened the pre-existing inequalities and exposed the weaknesses of social, political, and economic systems [15,16]. The crisis has resulted in massive job losses, shrinking economies, and loss of livelihoods. This was especially true for women, and weakened social protection systems left many of the poorest members of society unattended [17]. With economic activity plummeting, women were particularly vulnerable to layoffs and loss of livelihood. Globally, the pandemic pushed 96 million people into extreme poverty, of which 47 million were women and girls [18,19,20].

During the crisis related to the COVID-19 pandemic, trust in the national authorities in Poland deteriorated for 49% of respondents, remained the same for 39%, and improved for 13%. Trust in authorities has deteriorated most for men (52%), and those aged 18–24 and over 40. To the least extent, it concerned people aged 25–39 (42%). In the case of local authorities, 24% indicated that trust in the general opinion had deteriorated. Women (28%) and people aged 25–39 (29%) were more affected by the reduction in trust in local government authorities. For 51% of those surveyed, the government portrayed the crisis as bigger than it was in order to pursue its own goals. For 63%, the government had some information about COVID-19, which it was hiding from the public [21].

Globally, 41.4% of respondents expressed confidence in the government, but at the same time, 41.1% expressed a lack of this trust. A lower level of trust in world governments was expressed by younger respondents, women, people with a lower level of education and income, and people who had not voted for the currently ruling political parties. At the same time, the majority of respondents assessed that governments are reliable, and that “their government” reliably provided key public services. These services included mainly education (57.6%) and health care (61.7%). The respondents believed that the authorities also ensure easy access to information on administrative procedures (65.1%) and protect personal data (51.1%). Only about a third of respondents (32.6%) feared that governments would not be prepared for the pandemic crisis [21].

During the deepest lockdown, the Polish economy lost PLN 1.2 billion a day, and in the first year of the pandemic, it lost over PLN 185 billion. [22]. The crisis had an impact on the Polish economy and energy system. During the main period of the crisis, i.e., in 2019–2020, GDP fell by 2.7%. In 2021, GDP growth of 3.7% was already recorded. During the crisis, total energy supply (TES) fell from 103 Mtoe to 98 Mtoe, and total energy consumption (TFC) fell from 77.3 Mtoe to 75.8 Mtoe. The trajectory of the energy sector in 2021, referring to growing demand, greater consumption of fossil fuels, and an increase in emissions, was not in line with the goals of supporting the energy transition and combating climate change [23,24].

The COVID-19 crisis has led to a collapse and uncertainty in the energy market on a global scale. In the economic aspect, energy security emphasizes mainly two factors: prices of energy carriers and competitiveness in the energy market. The crisis did not spare the power sector, which saw mainly falling demand for energy, including electricity, and higher price volatility caused by increased uncertainty [23].

The results of the literature review confirmed that due to the disruption of energy supply and demand during the crisis, the efficiency of the market sharply decreased at the beginning of 2020, and also separated from the development of the pandemic in the second half of 2020 [25,26]. Demand for electricity has dropped significantly in many regions, and the market for transport fuels has shrunk dramatically. Planes were grounded and tourist and business traffic was significantly limited. During the crisis, lockdowns were introduced in many countries. The world entered a period of economic lockdown [27]. This has influenced changes in energy production and changes in the habits of energy consumers. The effect of these changes was an overall decrease in energy consumption, especially in the commercial and industrial sectors, while there was an increase in energy demand in the residential sector. Changes in the consumption profiles of energy consumers and changes in peak energy demand were also observed. In addition, a decline in the share of fossil fuels in the global energy mix has been observed. There was also a decrease in the profitability of investments and uncertainty related to the development of projects focused on RES [28,29]. The crisis has also had a negative impact on household incomes and led to an overall increase in energy prices and spending. The average business climate indicators, defining the condition of the economy during the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland, recorded a significant decrease. The largest decreases were for energy (−32.2), capital goods (−30.1), durable consumer goods (−28.0), and consumer goods (−10.8) [30,31].

2.2. The Electricity Market during the Crisis

In the initial period of the pandemic, the demand for energy in industry decreased, but at the same time, electricity consumption by private households increased enormously. The overall balance of electricity in Poland in 2019–2021 is presented in

Table 1. Electricity balance in 2019–2021 (data in TWh) [32] *.

Itemization	2019	2020	2021
Production	164.0	158.0	179.2
Import	17.9	20.6	15.1
Export	7.2	7.4	14.2
Consumption	174.6	171.3	180.1

* Own elaboration of the table based on the results from this article

.

In 2019–2021, the production and consumption of electricity in Poland showed a certain increase. In the first half of 2020, a decrease in demand for energy was recorded, which had an impact on the temporary reduction in electricity prices observed in 2020. In turn, in the third quarter, due to a sharp increase in natural gas prices, electricity prices increased [33]. In 2020, a decrease in both production and consumption was recorded, which was related to the drastic restrictions caused by the lockdown.

During the COVID-19 crisis, Poland’s energy supply was still dominated by fossil fuels (85% TES—thermal energy storage), with coal (40%) and natural gas (17%) having the largest share. In terms of the dominant role of coal in the energy system, Poland had the highest share among the countries of the International Energy Agency (IEA) [24]. The share of energy carriers in electricity production in 2012, 2020, and in the first half of 2022 is shown in Figure 1.

The Polish energy sector, mainly due to historical conditions and the availability of raw materials, is based primarily on hard coal and, to a lesser extent, on lignite. Unfortunately, over 70% of the power installed in the National Energy System dates from 30 years ago. This fact is reflected in much less effective work and a higher frequency of capital-intensive repairs. In 2020, the total power generated by commercial power plants was 36,364 MW. As much as 46% of this power was fueled by hard coal and 17% by lignite [35]. Russia’s aggression against Ukraine has changed Europe’s approach to fossil fuel imports, especially from Russia. The energy crisis, caused by high gas prices and a decrease in nuclear and hydropower production, translated into record-breaking energy prices across Europe [35]. The share of electricity production from coal in the total gross electricity production in Poland in 2010–2020 decreased from 87% in 2010 to 70% in 2020. The forecasts until 2040 predict a further decrease to 28% (Figure 2) [24].

During the crisis, the share of RES in total electricity production also increased. This increase was mainly recorded for wind and solar energy. This trend is consistent with the objectives of the development of the power system in Poland until 2040. The national strategy proposes an increase in the share of RES in gross final energy consumption to 23% and an increase in offshore wind energy and photovoltaics. The “My Electricity” program, which aims to support the installation of solar panels, energy storage, and energy management systems in households, received the greatest interest in the Podkarpackie Voivodship. In the Podkarpackie province, 2.42% of farms received co-financing from this program, and in the Lubelskie province—1.21% [36].

Many studies in the literature indicate that most households declare heating their homes by using coal, gas, and oil boilers, stoves, or fireplace heating systems. These systems definitely dominate in rural areas. In cities, the share of the municipal heating network is higher. At the same time, it should be emphasized that the overall electricity consumption per capita is higher in rural areas. There, the inhabitants show a much higher interest in photovoltaic installations [37]. The specific objectives of the Polish Energy Policy until 2040 (PEP2040) [34,38] cover the entire energy supply chain, from acquisition to consumption.

These goals are consistent with the statutory tasks of the state energy policy, in particular ensuring the competitiveness of the economy, energy efficiency, and limiting the impact of the energy sector on the environment [35]. These objectives are in line with the main pillars and specific objectives of PEP2040 (

Table 2. Elements of the PEP2040 strategy [34] *.

1. Fair Energy Distribution	2. Zero-Emission Energy System	3. Suitable Air Quality
Development of energy markets
Development of district heating and cogeneration
Optimal use of own energy resources	Expansion of the generation infrastructure and network electricity	Improvement of energy efficiency (due to the positive impact of the measures)
Improving energy efficiency (in the context of bottom-up activities)	Diversification of supplies and expansion of the network infrastructure of natural gas, crude oil, and liquid fuels
Nuclear energy implementations
Development of renewable energy sources

* Own elaboration of the table based on the results from this article.

).

2.3. Electricity Prices and Energy Poverty

Electricity prices on the wholesale market increased almost five times in the period from January 2020 to the end of November 2022. However, according to the literature, the noticeable and demonstrated real increase in energy prices at the retail level was 33%. In enterprises, it exceeded 100%. As a result, the majority of entrepreneurs still received electricity on the basis of forward contracts. Therefore, it is predicted that the real increase in retail prices is still ahead for the surveyed companies. Despite these differences, the vast majority—as many as 84% of the survey respondents—admitted, that the increase in electricity prices significantly affects the functioning of their company; 6% of the surveyed entities were considering closing their business [39].

There is no doubt that home heating bills currently consume a significant part of the budget of many households. Families whose heating system is based on coal combustion are particularly affected. According to the report of the Chamber of Commerce for Polish Coal Sellers (IGSPW), spending on this raw material in 2020 consumed on average 34% more of the household budget than in the previous heating season. As many as 57% of households in Poland stated that the purchase of coal in the 2022 heating season was a large (40%) or very large (17%) financial burden for them. This is an increase of 12% compared to the turn of 2021/22. Only 33% of households believed that this burden was moderate in the current heating season, and only 10% of households indicated that this burden was small [40]. Significantly, the number of households that felt thermal discomfort increased by as much as 60%. This was directly related to saving fuel and changing heating habits, which was declared by as many as 70% of families [41].

Studies of the impact of the crisis on the phenomenon of energy poverty in Poland confirmed that in 2020, the share of expenditure on energy carriers, in relation to disposable income per person, increased by 1.3% on average, compared to 2019. For this reason, the situation of households is comparable to 2017 [42,43]. As a result of the crisis, the percentage of households living in energy poverty increased by 69% in 2022 compared to 2019. The drastic increases in fossil fuel prices meant that in 2022, over 45% of households had to spend at least 10% of their income on the purchase of coal. A total of 12% of all Polish families were in extreme energy poverty and spent at least ⅕ of their income on heating [40]. During the pandemic, as reported by the Polish Economic Institute, the problem grew dynamically [44]. In the current heating season, the statistical expenses of families for the purchase of coal increased by 49% on average. Despite the increase in spending on coal, the total number of households using coal to heat their homes increased at the same time. In the heating season of 2022, this group included 32% of all farms in Poland [44].

Energy-poor families often take advantage of the tanning alternatives available to them. They are associated with a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions, but also air pollution and negative health effects. As many as 70% of people suffering from energy poverty use solid fuel boilers or stoves (wood, coal, or peat). Often, these people reach for the most readily available raw materials, i.e., garbage [44]. In this situation, society decided that the government should intervene in the energy market. For example, by introducing maximum tariffs or taxing energy producers. A total of 53% of the respondents strongly supported such a proposal, and 12% rather supported it [39].

From the point of view of electricity consumers, a significant change was introduced on 31 March 2020. It was the act on special solutions related to preventing, counteracting, and combating the COVID-19 crisis situation, the so-called anti-crisis shield 1.0. In accordance with the guidelines of the shield, the possibility of suspending the electricity supply has been excluded. This situation concerned the case of a recipient’s refusal to install the metering and billing system, and the recipient’s delay in payment for the provision of the service, at least 30 days after the expiry of the payment deadline [45].

In 2022, the law on emergency measures to reduce electricity prices was published. The rate of PLN 785/MWh applies, among others, to local government units and their subordinate institutions that consume energy for the purposes of performing commissioned tasks, and their own tasks, including services of general economic interest. The act concerned tasks in the field of education, health protection, street lighting, public transport, and the maintenance of public facilities and equipment, as well as administrative facilities. The price of PLN 693/MWh concerned individual customers, and collective housing units, when no economic activity is conducted in them. It will apply after the annual consumption limits are exceeded: 2 MWh for households; 2.6 MWh for families with a disabled person; 3 MWh for farmers, and holders of the Large Family Card [46].

2.4. The Structure of Poland’s Energy Mix against the Background of the European Union Countries

Showing the structure of the energy mix in selected EU countries, we can see that coal dominated in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Germany; nuclear power dominated in France and Slovakia; and RES in Spain, Germany, and Italy (

Table 3. Structure of the energy mix of selected EU member states in 2020 by electricity production (in %) [35] *.

Specification	Coal	Gas	Oil	Atom	Wind	Photovoltaics	Water	Another RES
Poland	68	11	3	0	10	1	1	3
Germany	24	16	4	11	24	9	3	9
Czech Republic	40	7	4	37	1	2	2	5
Slovakia	7	13	1	53	0	2	17	7
France	1	6	2	67	7	3	12	2
Spain	2	26	6	22	21	8	12	3
Italy	5	46	6	0	7	10	17	9

* Own elaboration of the table based on the results from this article.

) [35].

According to the Polish Nuclear Power Program (PPEJ), the construction of the first nuclear power plant will start in 2026, and the first reactor will be launched in 2033. It should be emphasized that social support for the construction of a nuclear power plant in Poland in 2020 amounted to 62.5% [47]. On 17 April 2023, Orlen Company announced the initial locations of the first six small nuclear reactors (SMRs). These locations are in the following towns: Włocławek, Ostrołęka, Nowa Huta in Kraków, Dąbrowa Górnicza, Stalowa Wola, Stawy Monowskie (near Oświęcim), and the vicinity of Warsaw. The first nuclear power plant is to be put into operation in 2029. Nuclear power plants will provide Poland with almost 40% of its energy needs and will increase GDP by over 1% [48,49].

According to experts, the most important megatrends that will significantly change the energy sector in Poland include decarburization, improvement of energy efficiency, sustainable development, and significant investments in the development of energy networks [50]. The transformation of the energy sector during the crisis in Poland made it possible to meet several goals related to the energy and climate package. These goals concerned the reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG), the increase in the share of renewable energy sources (RES), and energy efficiency (Figure 3 and Figure 4) [34].

The target related to the share of RES was met to a large extent, thanks to power generation from onshore wind farms, and the reduction in GHG emissions, thanks to changes in the energy mix aimed at low-emission renewable energy sources. The effects of COVID-19, by reducing the demand for energy, were also significant in achieving all the goals [34].

The most important current megatrends in the European energy sector are reducing emissions to protect the climate, developing renewable energy technologies, reducing the importance of fossil fuels, increasing the role of traditional energy farms, and increasing the decision-making role of society [51]. In 2015, the European Union presented the five main goals of its energy policy [52]. These goals are primarily the diversification of European energy sources; ensuring the functioning of a fully integrated internal energy market; improving energy efficiency and reducing dependence on energy imports; decarburization of the economy and transition to a low-emission economy; and promoting research in the field of low-carbon technologies and clean energy. The implementation of the adopted goals is to result in an increase in the share of energy from renewable sources in all energy sources to 42–45% in 2030 and a reduction in the consumption of primary energy in the EU by 40–42% and by 36–40% of final energy consumption [53,54].

This study was conducted in light of the presented trends and new challenges related to the COVID-19 crisis. The purpose of this study was to determine the expectations of the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland regarding the main trends emerging on the energy market in a specific crisis situation, resulting from the response to COVID-19. Two research questions were formulated: (1) Did the COVID-19 crisis shape the expectations of the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland regarding the energy market, and were these expectations consistent with the policies of the state and the European Union? (2) Were perceptions of the energy market and social phenomena differentiated in terms of sex, place of residence, and type of heating used in the respondent’s apartments?

3. Materials and Methods

At the conceptualization stage, the main challenges faced by the modern energy market in Poland were identified. These challenges have been transformed into theses expressing the needs of the energy market. The developed theses were included in the questionnaire form and subjected to an assessment of the consistency of the content of these formulations with the respondents’ beliefs.

Table 4. Research features included in the questionnaire form for this study.

No.	Research Features
1	Expectation of optimal use of own energy resources
2	Expectation of expansion of electricity generation and grid infrastructure
3	Expectation of diversification of supply and expansion of network infrastructure for natural gas, oil, and liquid fuels
4	Expecting the development of cross-border energy markets
5	Expectation of nuclear power implementation
6	Expectation of renewable energy development
7	Expectation of development of district heating and cogeneration
8	Expectation of energy efficiency improvements
9	Acceptance of increased state scrutiny during the COVID-19 crisis
10	Increased sense of threat
11	Deterioration of social bonds during the COVID-19 crisis
12	Deterioration of the economic level during the COVID-19 crisis
13	Concern about the depletion of non-renewable energy sources
14	Preference for energy savings in everyday life
15	Concern about a significant increase in energy prices, caused by EU policy
16	Concern about the negative economic consequences of increasing energy consumption

contains a list of the tested features. In the questionnaire form, the respondents were reminded that their assessment was to be subjective, referring to their individual beliefs. Then, these statements were assessed by the respondents in terms of the compliance of their expectations with the identified trends Although the differences in the perception of the world by women and men are widely known, due to the specificity of the surveyed community, an attempt was made to determine whether the expectations regarding the energy market are differentiated depending on the respondent’s sex. The following hypotheses were verified in the study:

H1. 

The respondents’ perception of selected economic and social factors in the context of the COVID-19 crisis was a determinant of the perception of the energy market.

H2. 

Respondents were aware of the main challenges related to megatrends in the energy market, and their expectations were in line with the energy policy of the European Union.

H3. 

Sex and place of residence of the respondents differentiated the perception of the energy market during the crisis.

H4. 

The views of the respondents regarding the current trends in the energy market and the crisis situation related to COVID-19 were related to the type of heating in their homes.

The research method was a diagnostic survey, the CAWI (computer-assisted web interview) technique was used, and the research tool was a questionnaire form. The study was partial and used non-probability sampling. The objects of the research were adults, the subject of the research was the respondents’ expectations regarding the energy market and perceptions of the crisis reality related to the response to COVID-19. The spatial scope of the research covered two NUTS 2 units of south-eastern Poland—Podkarpackie and Lubelskie (Figure 5). The research areas were selected due to the agricultural character of both regions, relatively high population density, with the majority of inhabitants living in rural areas, and lower average monthly income of the inhabitants compared to the whole country [55]. In the province Podkarpackie, in 2021, there were 2,085,932 people, of whom 49.6% were men and 51.4% were women. The greater number of inhabitants lived in the countryside (58.8%). A total of 18.8% of inhabitants were in the pre-working age group, 59.9% in the working age group, and 21.3% in the post-working age group. The largest group of inhabitants were people aged 30–44. The population lived in 52 cities, where cities with up to 20,000 inhabitants prevailed. Only one city had about 200,000 inhabitants. The rural population lived in 144 communes, more than half of which were communes with a population of 5–10 thousand inhabitants [56]. In the province of Lublin, in 2021, there were 2,038,299 people, of whom 48.2% were men and 51.8% were women. A total of 18.1% of inhabitants were in pre-working age group, 58.5% in the working age group, and 23.4% in the post-working age group. The largest group were people aged 35–49, and those aged 60–69. The population lived in 50 towns, where towns of up to 5000 predominated, and 10–50,000. The rural population lived in 193 communes, where communes with 5000 to 7000 inhabitants prevailed [57]. The authors of this publication, due to their participation in the creation of regional strategic documents, are well acquainted with the socio-economic specificity of this region, and therefore the geographical scope and the fact of living in the studied area were adopted as a feature qualifying for research.

The regions selected for research are specific. They belong to the border area of both Poland and the European Union. According to statistical data [11,58] from 2021, the balance of internal and foreign migrations for permanent residence per 1000 population was −0.9 in the Podkarpackie region and −1.0 in the Lubelskie region. The Podkarpackie region has the lowest ratio of dissolved marriages per 1000 population in Poland, amounting to 1.2. At the same time, in the examined regions, there is a low rate of extramarital births and a high share of people aged 65 and older in the total number of deaths compared to the rest of the country. This proves the proportionately lower mortality rate of young people from these regions. In 2021, the unemployment rate in Poland was 5.8%, while in the Lublin region, it was 8.7%, and in the Podkarpackie region it was the highest in the country (9.9%). In the Lubelskie region, there was one bed per 193 hospitalized people, which was the best ratio in the country, while in the Podkarpackie region, there were 230 people per hospital bed. These results are low compared to other regions. The emission of pollutants from plants that are particularly harmful to air quality in given regions was lower than the national average. Similarly, the amount of municipal waste generated was lower than average. Gross domestic product per capita in relation to the entire country in 2020 was 69.2% in the Lubelskie region, and 69.4% in the Podkarpackie region. These were the two lowest results in Poland. Against the background of the entire country, household gross disposable income per capita in the Podkarpackie region was 78.6%, and it occupied the last place, while in the Lublin region, it was 86.2%, and it occupied the third place from the bottom.

The above parameters of the studied regions could have influenced the behavior, expectations, and perceptions of the studied features by the respondents. The time range of the research covered the period from March to December 2022, i.e., the time just after the official partial lifting of the most drastic restrictions related to COVID-19 in Poland.

Access to the survey form was provided to several dozen people living in the study area. They were students and entrepreneurs cooperating with the universities where the authors work, representatives of local authorities, as well as representatives of social organizations. These people invited other respondents to participate in the survey, including through their own social media. A total of 732 questionnaires were collected, of which 637 were verified, meeting the research assumptions regarding the area of residence of the respondents. The study was correlational in nature, looking for relationships between the examined features, without the possibility of influencing the level of individual variables. Since the study used non-probability sampling, the inference applies only to the study group. Due to the unavailability of the proper sampling frame, the selection of the sample was based on the availability of the subjects. This method of sampling may be used in non-exhaustive studies. It has its own logic and can provide useful samples for social research [59]. The large sample size of this study provides results that yield some useful information.

Figure 5. The division of Poland into NUTS 2 units with the research areas indicated [60] (own elaboration of the table based on the results from this article).

Figure 5. The division of Poland into NUTS 2 units with the research areas indicated [60] (own elaboration of the table based on the results from this article).

The research tool was a survey form consisting of a series of sentences which are in fact theses that the respondents assessed in terms of compliance with their beliefs. The assessment was individual, reflecting the subjective beliefs of the respondents. A five-point Likert scale, with a neutral value, was used for the assessment [61]. The values on the scale are marked as follows: 1—definitely not; 2—probably not; 3—neither yes nor no; 4—rather yes; 5—definitely yes. The diagnostic theses were used to determine the respondents’ approach to the examined features. The list of examined features is presented in Table 4. The created questionnaire was tested for reliability, and for this purpose, Cronbach’s alpha test was calculated. The test result was 0.709491, which is an acceptable level [62].

Statistical analyses of the collected material were performed using Statistica and MS Excel. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated, an analysis of the structure of the assessments of the diagnostic theses was performed, and the average ratings and standard deviations were calculated. A simple correlation between the examined theses was also calculated. In order to verify the hypotheses regarding the differences between qualitative variables, such as sex, type of heating, and place of residence, the chi-square test of independence was calculated.

4. Results

Due to the fact that the research used non-probability sampling, the obtained results should be interpreted only in relation to the study group. Among the surveyed individuals, women accounted for 68%, and men for 32%. The average age of the respondents was 31.14 years, the median was 22, the modal was 20 years, and the fashion frequency was 104. The lower age quartile Q1 = 20, and the upper quartile Q3 = 41. The age range was 68 years, the minimum value = 18, and the maximum value was 86 years. Among the surveyed people, 54% were rural residents, while 46% of the respondents lived in cities.

At the beginning of the preparation of the collected material, the mean answers, and standard deviations of the collected assessments, were calculated. The results are presented in

Table 5. Percentage share of individual assessments of features as well as average ratings and standard deviations.

Research Features	Evaluation [%]					$\overline{\mathit{x}}$	SD
	1	2	3	4	5
1. Expectation of optimal use of own energy resources	1.57	5.34	10.67	49.92	32.50	4.06	0.89
2. Expectation of expansion of electricity generation and grid infrastructure	1.41	5.18	14.29	51.80	27.32	3.98	0.87
3. Expectation of diversification of supply and expansion of network infrastructure for natural gas, oil, and liquid fuels	2.20	6.44	24.33	47.41	19.62	3.76	0.92
4. Expecting the development of cross-border energy markets	0.78	4.71	23.24	52.75	18.52	3.84	0.81
5. Expectation of nuclear power implementation	12.40	17.90	27.63	22.13	19.94	3.19	1.29
6. Expectation of renewable energy development	1.73	3.14	8.63	36.26	50.24	4.30	0.88
7. Expectation of development of district heating and cogeneration	2.04	6.91	32.02	41.13	17.90	3.66	0.92
8. Expectation of energy efficiency improvements	0.94	2.04	11.62	45.37	40.03	4.22	0.80
9. Acceptance of increased state scrutiny during the COVID-19 crisis	15.38	24.80	24.65	27.16	8.01	2.88	1.20
10. Increased sense of threat	5.81	6.12	19.00	42.07	27.00	3.78	1.09
11. Deterioration of social bonds during the COVID-19 crisis	3.14	8.48	14.60	36.89	36.89	3.96	1.07
12. Deterioration of the economic level during the COVID-19 crisis	3.30	10.36	25.90	36.26	24.18	3.68	1.05
13. Concern about the depletion of non-renewable energy sources	3.45	10.20	13.66	39.88	32.81	3.88	1.08
14. Preference for energy savings in everyday life	5.97	15.07	22.45	39.09	17.42	3.47	1.12
15. Concern about a significant increase in energy prices, caused by EU policy	1.88	9.26	24.18	35.32	29.36	3.81	1.02
16. Concern about the negative economic consequences of increasing energy consumption	1.88	6.28	15.38	42.86	33.60	4.00	0.95

. The data contained in this table show that the highest scores, and at the same time the highest averages, were obtained by the statements related to expectations regarding the energy market. The three highest scores were obtained by the following features: “Expectation of renewable energy development” (86.5% positive ratings), “Expectation of energy efficiency improvements” (85.4% positive ratings), and “Expectation of optimal use of own energy resources” (82.4% positive ratings). These results indicated that the surveyed community had high hopes for the elements of the energy market included in the energy policy of the European Union. At the same time, these assessments indicated the great importance that the respondents attributed to Poland’s energy self-sufficiency.

In the structure of expectations related to the energy market, it is worth emphasizing the results related to nuclear energy. A total of 30.3% of respondents showed a negative attitude toward the development of nuclear energy in Poland (characteristic 5). It was the highest percentage of negative assessments of the analyzed directions of development of the energy market. Support for the implementation of this form of energy was declared by 42.1% of respondents, and it was the lowest percentage of positive attitude toward the surveyed trends. In opposition to these results, a high level of support from the respondents regarding the expectations of the development of renewable energy can be presented (feature 6). In this case, only 4.8% of respondents had a negative attitude toward the expectations regarding the development of RES. Such results may suggest that in the minds of the respondents, renewable energy sources were a priority direction of energy market development, while the public perception of nuclear energy was burdened with a number of concerns about the safety of these technical solutions.

In the group of characteristics related to social behavior in the crisis situation, the highest percentage of positive ratings (76.5%) referred to “Concern about the negative economic consequences of increasing energy consumption” and “Deterioration of social bonds during the COVID-19 crisis” (73.8%). Thus, the dominant concerns of the surveyed people were economic and social aspects, which were aggravated by the COVID-19 crisis. (40.2% of negative ratings). This may mean that the surveyed group of people valued independence and did not support state interference in the private lives of citizens.

Pearson’s simple correlation analysis was also performed on the collected data. The correlation between all the examined features was calculated in search of existing dependencies. The results are presented in

Table 6. Pearson’s simple correlation coefficients for assessments of diagnostic features concerning expectations regarding the energy market *.

Research Features **	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
2	0.4911
	p = 0.00
3	0.3841	0.4114
	p = 0.00	p = 0.00
4	0.3012	0.4754	0.4934
	p = 0.000	p = 0.00	p = 0.00
5	0.0718	0.1478	0.2264	0.182
	p = 0.070	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.000
6	0.3713	0.4683	0.2945	0.3965	0.1146
	p = 0.00	p = 0.00	p = 0.000	p = 0.00	p = 0.004
7	0.2589	0.3052	0.2683	0.2805	0.1872	0.303
	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.000
8	0.4186	0.4524	0.3402	0.3383	0.1659	0.4898	0.4214
	p = 0.00	p = 0.00	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.00	p = 0.00
Interpretation of Pearson’s correlation coefficients [63]
None	Negligible	Weak	Moderate	Strong	Very Strong	Perfect	p statistically significant
<0.1	0.1–0.2	0.2–0.3	0.3–0.4	0.4–0.7	0.7–0.9	0.9–1	p = 0.05

* Statistically significant correlation coefficients are marked in red. ** Description of features included in the research methodology (Table 4).

,

Table 7. Pearson’s simple correlation coefficients for assessments of diagnostic features regarding expectations regarding the energy market and assessments of attitudes toward crisis elements *.

Research Features **	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
9	−0.0102	−0.0411	−0.0874	0	−0.0648	−0.0714	0.0129	−0.0066
	p = 0.797	p = 0.300	p = 0.027	p = 0.999	p = 0.102	p = 0.072	p = 0.744	p = 0.868
10	0.1092	0.1115	0.0326	0.0847	0.003	0.1368	0.0676	0.1388
	p = 0.006	p = 0.005	p = 0.411	p = 0.033	p = 0.940	p = 0.001	p = 0.088	p = 0.000
11	0.1977	0.1626	0.1043	0.1458	−0.0034	0.1767	0.0692	0.1636
	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.008	p = 0.000	p = 0.932	p = 0.000	p = 0.081	p = 0.000
12	0.0915	0.1184	0.0868	0.0778	0.0867	0.1337	0.1053	0.1688
	p = 0.021	p = 0.003	p = 0.029	p = 0.050	p = 0.029	p = 0.001	p = 0.008	p = 0.000
13	0.162	0.0969	0.0732	0.0933	0.0229	0.1304	0.1135	0.1472
	p = 0.000	p = 0.014	p = 0.065	p = 0.019	p = 0.564	p = 0.001	p = 0.004	p = 0.000
14	0.1136	0.0496	0.0739	0.1065	−0.0291	0.1505	0.076	0.1346
	p = 0.004	p = 0.211	p = 0.062	p = 0.007	p = 0.464	p = 0.000	p = 0.055	p = 0.001
15	0.1111	0.13	0.1427	0.1052	0.1117	0.0444	0.0801	0.1544
	p = 0.005	p = 0.001	p = 0.000	p = 0.008	p = 0.005	p = 0.263	p = 0.043	p = 0.000
16	0.1879	0.171	0.0522	0.1	−0.0166	0.1939	0.12	0.2351
	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.189	p = 0.012	p = 0.676	p = 0.000	p = 0.002	p = 0.000
Interpretation of Pearson’s correlation coefficients [63]
None	Negligible	Weak	Moderate	Strong	Very Strong	Perfect	p statistically significant
<0.1	0.1–0.2	0.2–0.3	0.3–0.4	0.4–0.7	0.7–0.9	0.9–1	p = 0.05

* Statistically significant correlation coefficients are marked in red. ** Description of features included in the research methodology (Table 4).

and

Table 8. Pearson’s simple correlation coefficients for assessments of diagnostic features regarding responses to the COVID-19 crisis *.

Research Features **	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
10	0.2659
	p = 0.000
11	0.1888	0.4887
	p = 0.000	p = 0.00
12	0.1572	0.3108	0.4055
	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.00
13	0.0421	0.0881	0.0572	0.1035
	p = 0.289	p = 0.026	p = 0.149	p = 0.009
14	0.0269	0.0513	0.0831	0.0462	0.155
	p = 0.497	p = 0.196	p = 0.036	p = 0.245	p = 0.000
15	0.0744	0.1556	0.1128	0.1066	0.0868	0.0189
	p = 0.060	p = 0.000	p = 0.004	p = 0.007	p = 0.029	p = 0.633
16	0.0219	0.1681	0.1683	0.0985	0.2814	0.1189	0.0888
	p = 0.581	p = 0.000	p = 0.000	p = 0.013	p = 0.000	p = 0.003	p = 0.025
Interpretation of Pearson’s correlation coefficients [63]
None	Negligible	Weak	Moderate	Strong	Very Strong	Perfect	p statistically significant
<0.1	0.1–0.2	0.2–0.3	0.3–0.4	0.4–0.7	0.7–0.9	0.9–1	p = 0.05

* Statistically significant correlation coefficients are marked in red. ** Description of features included in the research methodology (Table 4).

. Using a colored scale, correlation coefficients were determined according to the strength of the relationship between the examined features [63].

Table 6 presents the results of the correlation between the characteristics related to the respondents’ expectations of the energy market. In this case, except for one correlation coefficient, all others were positive and statistically significant. Relationships that can be described as strong were calculated between feature no. 2 “Expectation of expansion of electricity generation, and grid infrastructure” and features nos. 1, 3, 4, 6, and 8, and an average correlation was calculated with feature 7. This means that beliefs in the expansion of the energy generation potential, the use of renewable energy sources, the expansion of international energy markets, and the improvement of energy efficiency, were accompanied by the conviction of the need to improve and expand the transmission systems. These relationships indicate the respondents’ high awareness of the basic challenges related to the development of the energy market in Poland. The expectation of the development of liquid fuel transmission infrastructure was strongly correlated with the expectation of the development of international energy markets. This relationship can be interpreted as evidence of respondents’ awareness of the sources of Poland’s supply of liquid fuels. The expectation of improving energy efficiency is positively strongly correlated with the expectation of a more efficient use of own resources, and the expansion of electricity transmission networks, as well as the expectation of increasing the use of renewable energy, and the development of heating and cogeneration. It is worth emphasizing that no strong correlations were found between the expected implementation of nuclear energy and other features of the energy market.

Table 7 presents simple correlation coefficients between expectations regarding the energy market, and features related to social behavior during the COVID-19 crisis. Some of the calculated coefficients were statistically significant, but the values of the coefficient r, indicating the strength of the relationship, classified these relationships as none or negligible. Such results indicate that during the COVID-19 crisis, social behavior, i.e., difficulties and fears caused by the crisis situation, were not related to expectations regarding the energy market.

Table 8 presents the coefficients of simple correlation between the elements of social behavior in the context of the COVID-19 crisis. Strong, positive correlations were observed between feature 11, i.e., the sense of deterioration of social ties, and features 10 (Increased sense of threat) and 12 (Deterioration of the economic level during the COVID-19 crisis). The result was not surprising, because the crisis caused by the reaction to SARS-CoV-2 led to a number of negative social phenomena, including a sense of threat and economic destruction. The results of the correlation analysis indicate the coexistence of the perception of these three negative phenomena. Referring to the structure of ratings contained in Table 5, it is worth emphasizing that the vast majority of respondents confirmed the deterioration of social ties, an increased sense of fear, and a deterioration of the economic level. The remaining correlation coefficients contained in Table 8 had very low values, which did not justify drawing conclusions about the occurrence of relationships.

In order to verify hypotheses 3 and 4, calculations of the chi-square test of independence were performed. The results of these calculations are presented in

Table 9. Results of chi-square tests of differences in the assessment of the examined characteristics depending on the sex of the respondent.

Research Features *	Value of Chi-Squared Test	Research Features *	Value of Chi-Squared Test
1	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 4.02, p = 0.4034	9	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 2.07, p = 0.7225
2	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 1.12, p = 0.8905	10	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 21.40, p = 0.0003
3	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 8.86, p = 0.0647	11	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 24.86, p = 0.0001
4	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 2.60, p = 0.6268	12	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 3.66, p = 0.4542
5	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 66.92, p = 0.0000	13	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 21.33, p = 0.0003
6	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 16.13, p = 0.0029	14	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 27.64, p = 0.0000
7	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 7.39, p = 0.1167	15	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 30.34, p = 0.0000
8	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 2.32, p = 0.6780	16	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 30.34, p = 0.0000

* Description of features included in the research methodology (Table 4).

,

Table 10. Results of chi-square tests of differences in the assessment of the examined features depending on the type of heating in the respondents’ apartments.

Research Features *	Value of Chi-Squared Test	Research Features *	Value of Chi-Squared Test
1	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 22.46, p = 0.5520	9	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 15.11, p = 0.9176
2	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 12.20, p = 0.9774	10	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 24.23, p = 0.4488
3	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 35.11, p = 0.0668	11	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 26.14, p = 0.3461
4	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 16.06, p = 0.8858	12	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 22.11, p = 0.5725
5	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 40.08, p = 0.0210	13	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 24.31, p = 0.4440
6	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 20.08, p = 0.6921	14	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 34.03, p = 0.0841
7	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 20.45, p = 0.6709	15	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 41.09, p = 0.0163
8	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 71.54, p = 0.0000	16	χ2 (24, N = 637) = 21.05, p = 0.6359

* Description of features included in the research methodology (Table 4).

and

Table 11. Results of chi-square tests of differences in the assessment of the examined features depending on the place of residence of the respondents.

Research Features *	Value of Chi-Squared Test	Research Features *	Value of Chi-Squared Test
1	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 8.20, p = 0.08445	9	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 7.90, p = 0.09540
2	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 5.26, p = 0.26153	10	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 3.49, p = 0.47940
3	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 1.00, p = 0.90957	11	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 8.03, p = 0.09031
4	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 6.16, p = 0.18739	12	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 6.88, p = 0.14263
5	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 5.39, p = 0.24933	13	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 2.69, p = 0.61082
6	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 9.21, p = 0.05614	14	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 1.53, p = 0.82044
7	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 4.29, p = 0.36828	15	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 3.36, p = 0.49974
8	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 9.77, p = 0.04441	16	χ2 (4, N = 637) = 3.56, p = 0.46955

* Description of features included in the research methodology (Table 4).

. The chi-square test of independence was used to test whether there are statistically significant differences between two categorical variables.

Within the features related to the energy market (features 1 to 8), differences related to sex occurred only in relation to features 5 and 6. It was the attitude of the respondents to the need to implement nuclear energy and the further development of renewable energy. Figure 6 shows the average ratings of the examined features by the respondents, depending on their sex. As can be seen from part a, Figure 6, men were more positive than women about the implementation of nuclear energy in Poland. This is in contrast to the attitudes toward renewable energy, where women assessed the development of the use of RES higher than men. At the same time, it should be emphasized that both women and men had a more positive attitude toward renewable energy than nuclear energy. These results are consistent with the direction of development of the energy market set by the European Union.

With regard to social behavior in the COVID-19 crisis situation, sex differences were confirmed in more features (Table 9). Part b of Figure 6 presents a categorized graph of average ratings of features related to the COVID-19 crisis, broken down by the sex of the respondents for whom the group independence test showed statistically significant differences. According to the presented data, women showed a higher level of concern, both in relation to the deterioration of social ties, as well as in relation to features related to the fear of a deterioration in the quality of life (features 13–16). The results of this study confirm the well-known fact that women are more socially sensitive and more empathetic.

Table 10 presents the results of the analysis of the chi-square test of differences between the groups depending on the type of heating in the respondents’ apartments. Statistically significant differences were found only with regard to characteristics number 5, related to the implementation of nuclear energy in Poland; 8, concerning the expectation of increasing energy efficiency; and 15, related to concerns about a significant increase in energy prices as a result of the European Union policy. The average ratings of the listed features are shown in Figure 7. It is worth noting that all respondents, regardless of the type of heating, were moderately open to introducing nuclear energy. People who heat their houses with fuel oil and use solar heating rated this direction particularly low. However, the expectation of increasing energy efficiency was highly rated among all respondents, and this aspect was particularly emphasized by respondents who heated their houses using solar energy and electricity. Both of these groups also showed the highest level of concern about a significant increase in energy prices as a result of the European Union’s climate policy.

The analysis of the differences between the groups, using the chi-square test, depending on whether their the place of residence is in the countryside or in the city, is presented in Table 11. Statistically significant differences were noted only in relation to feature 8, which is expected to increase energy efficiency. However, in relation to feature 6, concerning the expectations of RES development, the coefficient p slightly exceeded the assumed value of 0.05. It is worth emphasizing, that the average scores for both features were relatively high, but the expectation for the development of renewable energy sources was slightly higher. Figure 8 shows the differences between the assessments of these two features depending on the place of residence of the respondents. The data show, that respondents living in rural areas rated the development of RES higher and showed greater interest in increasing energy efficiency. Such results may suggest that rural residents, due to closer contact with nature, more easily perceive the need to increase energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources.

5. Discussion

The conducted research allowed us to verify the research hypotheses. The first hypothesis was rejected, because the crisis situation caused by the response to COVID-19 was not a determinant of expectations regarding the energy market. No correlation was found between the reaction to the crisis situation, social behavior, and expectations regarding the energy market. These results can be interpreted in different ways. The literature describes the tendency to focus on one’s own needs during a crisis, and the mechanism of denying negative events [64,65]. Similar mechanisms may have been present in this study. Difficulties caused by the crisis situation could also lead to the strengthening of local social ties (communitas) by creating stress response strategies, supporting local entrepreneurship, and counteracting social disintegration [25,66]. It should be emphasized that our respondents came from two provinces where, during the first wave of COVID-19, the incidence was one of the highest in Poland [67]. The respondents’ moods were dominated by a sense of threat, fear of deterioration of health, economic level, and destruction of social bonds. However, no correlation was found between these negative features and expectations regarding the energy market. In this study, a high level of acceptance of state interference in shaping the energy market was observed.

The attitudes of the surveyed respondents were reflected in their expectations as to the direction of development, the use of indigenous energy resources, the development of renewable energy, increasing energy efficiency, and the implementation of nuclear energy. At the same time, it was found that the respondents had a negative attitude toward increased state interference in the individual lives of citizens and were afraid of the negative consequences of the crisis, but they approached the future rationally and calmly, especially in the context of the energy market. This can be explained by the mixed reports on the risk and mortality caused by COVID-19 [67,68,69,70,71]. Especially in the context of the research, it indicated the ineffectiveness of crisis strategies [13,71], and the fact that the respondents focused more on issues related to the economic sphere [72,73,74].

In this study, the second hypothesis was confirmed, as the respondents indicated the need for the optimal use of their own energy resources, based primarily on renewable energy sources and nuclear energy. There was also an emphasis on the need to improve the energy efficiency of the country. This is consistent with the EU’s direction of development of the common energy market [39,75]. It can therefore be concluded that, on the one hand, our respondents understood the technical challenges facing the Polish power system, and, on the other hand, women were more supportive of the EU trend of RES development, while men were more likely to favor the development of nuclear energy. These study results are consistent with the results obtained by some other authors [15,25,30,75,76], who indicate that the development of nuclear energy is beneficial from the point of view of Poland’s energy security. Striving for the development of nuclear power, however, must not mean the abandonment of the renewable and conventional energy sources used so far. The diversification of energy sources can obviously increase the energy security of the state. Energy transformation is one of the key areas of activity of the European Union. The example of Poland, compared to other EU countries in Central and Eastern Europe, is special, because the vision of energy policy transformation assumes the need to transform the coal energy culture into a sustainable culture. The transition to a low-emission, and energy-secure Europe is becoming increasingly important in the policies and strategies of the European Union [77,78]. Renewable energy sources play a key role in the decarbonization of the economy of the European Union (EU) and the world [79]. It can be said that nuclear energy is back on the agenda in Europe. The European Commission even wants to include nuclear energy in the criteria for sustainable development and wants to classify nuclear energy as a green energy source. However, this has encountered strong resistance from Germany and Austria [80]. Currently, nuclear energy, developed in 32 countries, is responsible for the production of approx. 10% of electricity. In Europe, nuclear energy accounts for the largest share of France’s energy mix (69%). Nuclear energy also plays a significant role in the energy sectors of Slovakia (52.3%), Belgium (50.8%), Hungary (46.8%), Finland (32.8%), Sweden (30.8%), and Switzerland (28.8%) [81]. Nuclear energy in Poland meets with the greatest resistance among people living in the south of the country (Małopolskie and Śląskie Voivodships), where 44% are opposed, and also in south-western Poland (Opolskie and Dolnośląskie), where 38% are against [82].

This study confirmed the third research hypothesis because, as mentioned above, sex was important not only in the differentiated perception of certain energy sources but also due to its influence on social behavior. The negative effects of the crisis were felt more by women, which manifested itself in a greater sense of threat, and deterioration of social bonds. Women were more compassionate and concerned about the future. Therefore, the results of our research partially overlapped with the studies of other authors [15,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86], which indicate that during the COVID-19 crisis, many women paid attention to the loss of work among people in their immediate vicinity, which affected the situation of the whole family. At the same time, women have traditionally felt obliged to help relatives in difficult situations. Yet other studies [84] show that the effects of crises like COVID-19 are never sex-neutral.

The place of residence of the surveyed respondents had little influence on perceptions of the energy market and social behavior. However, it differentiated features related to the development of renewable energy from those related to increasing energy efficiency. Both of these features have an economic dimension, as indicated by other authors [42,87,88,89]. Social expectations largely concern low energy prices and the stability of supplies, and, moreover, respondents expect energy to be obtained while respecting the natural environment. Perhaps that is why rural residents paid more attention to energy efficiency and the development of RES. It is worth emphasizing the high level of expectations of the surveyed respondents regarding the development of renewable energy. Social acceptance of the development of renewable energy is an important factor in the course of the energy transformation, not only in the EU but also in the world [90].

The fourth research hypothesis was confirmed, as there were differences in the perception of the energy market, and in social behavior, during the COVID-19 crisis, depending on the type of heating in the respondents’ homes. These differences have been noted in relation to features related to some extent to the economic aspects of energy supply. It is worth noting that the owners of photovoltaic installations showed lower expectations regarding the implementation of nuclear energy compared to respondents using electricity to heat their homes. Differences in the perception of the energy market, depending on the type of home heating, will probably deepen along with the increase in energy prices. Other authors emphasize this issue, drawing attention to the growing problem of energy poverty [91,92]. In this situation, the role of the state in supporting the energy poor is growing, and there is a phenomenon of burning low-quality fuels in order to meet the basic energy needs of households affected by energy poverty. Among the causes of energy poverty are the low energy efficiency of places of residence, and the improper use of energy-consuming devices [92]. The conducted research showed that the respondents were very aware of the importance of energy efficiency in the functioning of the modern energy market.

Some authors claim [71,93] that the pandemic was a challenge of modern times, as well as a tragedy for many people, and from the very beginning required members of society to leave their comfort zone, abandon their current lifestyle, and give up many habits. It should be noted, however, that the population of the regions studied here approached the crisis with moderate anxiety. This could partly be due to the age structure of the respondents, which was dominated by young people, usually more optimistic about the future. This is also confirmed by studies by other authors, e.g., in the field of counteracting COVID-19 strategy [13,67,94,95,96,97,98,99].

In general, the expectations of the surveyed group of respondents regarding the energy market were consistent with the actions recommended by the European Commission, and the efforts of the Polish authorities, regarding energy transformation [34,35,38,51,52,53,54]. The investigated regions are therefore open to various options, despite the conservative and traditional approach of the inhabitants to many life issues [96,100]. This is an indication for decision-makers that in these regions of Poland, consumers have different, specific views on the energy market, because they partly agree with the EU, and partly with local, and national trends [24,50,54].

6. Conclusions

• The first hypothesis was rejected. The greatest support among respondents was recorded for the optimal use of the country’s own energy resources, and the development of energy networks, in conjunction with the expansion of its own energy potential, and improvement of energy efficiency.
• The second hypothesis was partially confirmed. The expectations of the respondents were in line with the energy policy of the European Union. The respondents confirmed, above all, the increase in the use of renewable energy sources, while, on the other hand, the EU trend of abandoning the production of electricity in nuclear power plants was not confirmed by the surveyed respondents. This is also evidenced by Poland’s energy policy, which emphasizes the development of both of these energy sources.
• The third hypothesis was partially confirmed, as differences related to sex were observed mainly in relation to the expectations regarding the development of RES and nuclear energy. Men were more positive than women about the implementation of nuclear energy in Poland; women rated the development of RES use higher than men. Respondents living in rural areas assessed the development of RES higher and showed greater interest in increasing energy efficiency.
• The fourth hypothesis was partially confirmed, as all respondents, regardless of the type of home heating, showed moderate openness to the introduction of nuclear energy. People who heated their homes with fuel oil and used solar heating rated this direction of energy transformation particularly low. Increasing the national energy efficiency was highly rated by all respondents, but especially by those who heated their homes using solar energy and electricity. Both of these groups showed the highest concern for the significant increase in energy prices as a result of the European Union’s climate policy.

7. Summary and Recommendations

Summing up, the expectations of the surveyed community regarding the direction of changes in the energy market were basically consistent with the Polish policy implemented in this area. The main directions of this policy are consistent with the directions of energy development in the European Union. Hence, the respondents’ expectations are consistent with the energy development path implemented by the European Union. It is worth noting that in the context of the COVID-19 crisis, despite significant restrictions and economic turbulence, the respondents showed a great understanding of energy-saving activities. Taking advantage of the high social support for improving energy efficiency, it is worth developing activities in this direction both in the public and private sectors. Further state support for thermo-modernization projects would meet social expectations in the future. Research shows the potential long-term impact of these attitudes on energy policy, both at the national and EU level.

After the crisis caused by the pandemic and the increase in energy demand, a transformation will be necessary toward the growing importance of renewable energy sources, and partly also nuclear energy. The modernization of the energy system is also becoming important. These activities will enable Poland’s energy security.

Based on the presented research and a systematic review of the literature, the authors of this article make the following recommendations:

(i)

Public awareness of renewable energy sources should be developed, especially those that are not dependent on the weather;

(ii)

Since the response of the respondents to the crisis was moderate, it is worth using this social stability in future economic and state decisions;

(iii)

The creation of energy communities, with the main objective of producing energy for their own use and for sale, should be encouraged.

8. Contributions and Limitations

The innovative contribution of this research is to fill the gap in the recognition of the relationship between the respondents’ expectations regarding the energy market and the behavior of the inhabitants of one of the poorest regions of Poland, in a crisis situation. The research results can be a resource for decision-makers that can be used in shaping the social perception of the challenges related to the decarbonization of the energy market, and social education in the field of the economic aspects of consumption.

The limitations of this study are that all variables were measured simultaneously, so the study is cross-sectional, and additional attention may need to be paid to other causes of the studied phenomena. Further research in this direction would give a clearer picture. In addition, the use of non-probability samples and the exploratory nature of the study provide important insights, which, however, should be interpreted as general results. In addition, the intention of the researchers was to present the current situation, so they focused mainly on descriptive statistics.