Global Burden of Lumpy Skin Disease, Outbreaks, and Future Challenges
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Virus, Pathology and Transmission
2.1. Lumpy Skin Disease Virus
2.2. Viral Structure, Nature, and Genome Characteristics
2.3. Viral Replication and Resistance
2.4. Host–Pathogen Interaction
2.5. Viral Transmission
2.6. Pathogenesis and Effects on Host Body
2.7. Clinical Manifestation
2.8. Hematological Assessment
2.9. Biochemical Assessment
2.10. Pathological Assessment
3. Historical Outbreaks and Re-Emergence
4. Diagnosis and Management
4.1. Presumptive Diagnosis
4.2. Confirmatory Diagnosis
4.3. Differential Diagnosis
4.4. Treatment Strategies
5. Vaccines and Vaccine Controversies
6. Economic Impact
7. Transboundary Biosecurity Threat
8. Biosecurity Policies
9. Incursion Threat and Global Chaos
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Country | Probable Origin | Strain, Vaccine and Vaccine Complication | Brief Epidemiological Data Including Economic Importance | Re-Emergence and Possibilities of Re-Emerging | Global Threat | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1929 | Zambia | Not clear | Limited data on strain Insufficient vaccination | Acute, Subacute or inapparent Countrywide distribution (Eastern, Northern and Central province) | 33 outbreaks occur in 1987 | Other African countries | [125,126] |
1943 | Botswana | Zambia | Neethling strain, controlled through vaccination with live attenuated vaccines (LSDV Neethling strain) and South African LSDV field isolate (Lumpyvax) | Named as ‘Ngamiland Cattle Disease’ Endemic type, transmission occurred by biting arthropods | Outbreaks occur in almost every year since 1943 | Zimbabwe and South Africa | [109] |
1944–1945 | Zimbabwe | Zambia and Botswana | Neethling virus, live attenuated virus vaccine Neethling strain: immunity conferred lasts up to 3 years | Cattle movement from communal areas into the previous commercial farms. After land reform program launched in 2000, outbreaks occurred on large-scale commercial cattle farms | Re-emergence occurs almost every year | Infected animals exporting countries | [127,128] |
South Africa | Neethling-type strain Live attenuated South African LSDV field isolate | Known As ‘knopvelsiekte’, transportation of cattle is the possible route of entry and biting flies (Stomoxys calcitrans and Musca confiscate) are the transmitting vector. Approximately 8 million cattle were affected and massive economic loss due to reduced production | Severe outbreak occurred in 1953–1954 and epizootics continued to 1968 | Sudan and Ethiopia | [129,130] | ||
1946–1956 | Mozambique, Angola, Madagascar, Namibia, Tanzania and Uganda | Zambia and Botswana | Neethling-type strain Limited available data of vaccination | Outbreak spreads slowly and erratically Cattle transportation is the mode of transmission. No detailed information is available | Re-emergence in almost every year with minimal outbreak | Other cattle transporting, border-side countries | [131] |
1957 | Kenya | No record found in online search | LSD/240 strain of lumpy skin disease virus, identical with the Neethling strain Vaccine derived from Kedong Valley strain of sheep pox virus | Primarily epizootic in nature but subsequently sporadic, vector borne infection persists in the areas of high-altitude indigenous forest in a fairly high rainfall zone with very lower morbidity of 1–2% but initiate considerable economic losses by decreasing production performances | Re-emergence in almost every year with minimal outbreak | Several African territories by entry of exotic breed | [8,110] |
1971 | Sudan | Limited data available | Neethling-type strain Live attenuated local strain of LSD used as vaccine | Epizootic in nature and later become endemic of a milder form for local breed but fatal for exotic, transmitted mainly by biting arthropods (Tick, Amblyomma spp.) and aerosol transmission, affect mostly larger dairy farm and usually after rainy season | several outbreaks in Khartoum, Gezira and the River Nile States during the period 2004–2006 | Limited data available | [111,112,131] |
1973–1974 | Cand, Niger and Nigeria | Cameroon through Gongola State (Nigeria) | LSDV V/281-Nigeria field strain Live attenuated homologous and heterologous vaccines were used | Epizootic initially with gradual turn into endemic pattern, outbreaks occurred in rainy season and spread by combined effect of wind and movement of host and vector with very insignificant direct loss but persistent economic losses was recorded | In 1979–1980 more severe and widespread outbreaks were recorded | Limited data available | [113,114] |
1981–1983 | Ethiopia | Sudan | Neethling virus prototype strain Live attenuated Kenyan sheep and goat pox (KSGP 0–180) vaccines produced effective control approach | It is epizootic in almost all the regions and agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia, highly associated with climatic conditions, mainly heavy rainfall, favoring the increased vector population (Biting insects), sero-prevalence was higher in the midland agro-climate zones. The financial losses reflect the loss both animal and animal products | Major epidemic outbreaks were in 2000–2001 in and epidemics recorded up to 2010. | Limited data available | [35,49,115] |
1988–1989 | Egypt | Africa | Similar to the African, Asian and European strains A heterologous vaccine (Romanian sheep pox vaccine) provided sufficient levels of protection. | Is typical exotic disease, usually entered through importation of live animals. Within a few short years, it transformed into enzootic status, arthropod vectors are main source of infection and the activity of vector increased in the wet weather of rainy season | Re-emerged with enzootic nature in 2006, 2011 and 2014 and going on with endemic nature | European countries and specially Israel | [72,117,132] |
1889 | Israel | Egypt | No reported data found about strain. Vaccination was failed with Yugoslavian RM 65 sheep pox strain vaccine, but effectiveness was derived by repeated vaccination with RM 65 sheep pox strain vaccine | Epizootics of this disease were associated with high humidity with warm and moist condition and possibly spread by stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans), charecteristics with mild clinical form and lower morbidity and mortality | Outbreaks occurred in Israel in 1989, 2006, 2007, and 2012 subsequently. | Limited data available | [41,133] |
1990–2010 | Middle eastern countries # | Egypt and Israel | Neethling-type strain Unclear data about the maintenance during inter-epidemic periods but proper vaccination, strict biosecurity and slaughter policies were noted for eradication | This disease was epizootic in nature in all the countries, considered as the transboundary transmitted mainly, having a significant effect on trade and food security and there was much variation in morbidity, mortality and disease spread rate | Several occurrences sporadically with the cross-boundary transmission | All the surrounding countries were subjected to be pandemic exploration | [50] |
2012–2014 | Middle eastern countries ## | Syria and Iraq | Neethling-type strain, Vaccination with Bakirkoy sheep pox strain, RM-65 sheep pox strain and the unlabeled LSD strain specially in Jordan were used for control | Primarily an epizootic disease having a risk of being endemic in each country, without or with a very low abundance of arthropod vectors but was likely to be associated with the illegal movement of clinically sick or asymptomatic infected animals and vectors | Several occurrences were recorded in different provinces of individual country | Greece and Bulgaria | [134,135] |
2015–2017 | Russia | Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Kazakhstan | Neethling-type strain, A heterologous (SGPV strain vaccine) has been used with a coverage of approximately 70% protection | Epizootics nature was responsible for significant damage with high morbidity and low mortality rates, usually spread occurred by illegal, infected animal movement, had a severe attack with approximately 7% infected animals died | Subsequent re-emergence in following years up to 2019 | Northern regions of Europe | [136,137] |
Balkan Countries ### | Turkey | Neethling-type strain, A live attenuated homologous vaccine (Neethling strain and SIS Neethling type) was used and reported a better immunity | This epidemic had a strong seasonal pattern, with a summer peak and a winter drop, along with a abundance of arthropod vector resulting a faster spread of over 7600 LSD outbreaks with approximately 12,800 affected animals were reported in 2015 | No outbreaks were reported in 2018 | Central and South Asian countries | [39,121,138] | |
2019 | Bangladesh | Unresolved but may be from neighboring countries | LSDV are 99.99% homologous with two old African field strains-Neethling 2490 and KSGP 0–240 Prophylactic vaccination with attenuated LSD or goat pox viruses are being practicing | An emerging threat to cattle health with major socioeconomic impact by production losses, added treatment costs, chronic debilitation and death of the animals, massively influenced by the geographical distribution and seasonal pattern and mechanical transmission by arthropod vector | Re-emergence was found in 2020 with huge high morbidity and mortality was also recorded. | India, Myanmar | [23,76,121] |
India | LSDV were very closely related to the Neethling NI-2490/1958, Kenya/1958 and KSGP-like strains. Live attenuated vaccines of capripoxvirus (Kenyan sheep and goat pox strain (KS-1), Yugoslavian RM-65 sheep pox strain, Romanian sheep pox strain and South African strain) are currently being using | Endemic occurrence was carried out by mechanical arthropod vector (mosquitoes, biting flies, Culicoides, midges and blood sucking hard ticks) and vector abundance is influenced by wet and warmer condition of summer and autumn months, causes approximately 2 hundred thousand cattle infection with death of approximately 97,000 cattle resulting severe economic losses by the means of individual death and reduced milk yield of 20% till 2022 | Outbreaks are ongoing in different states of India | Nepal and Bhutan | [139,140,141] | ||
China | Kazakhstan and Russia | Three strains were found (LSDV/China/XJ01/2019 China/GD01/2020 and LSDV/Hongkong/2021) and related to the Neethling strain. Live attenuated goat pox vaccines are used | The epidemic nature outbreak occurs in different provinces and believed to be spread through the arthropod vector and uncontrol cattle and animal products movement, caused a devastation for the cattle industry. The morbidity and mortality of each outbreaks ranged 6.6–100% and 0–16.7%, respectively | LSD was spread to Southeast China in 2020 and caused outbreaks in multiple provinces | Taiwan | [142,143,144] | |
2020 | Nepal | India and China | LSDV NI-2490 strain is identical to the strain isolated from Kenya, Bangladesh and India Lack of available vaccines Prevention and control is maintained by proper biosecurity, vector control, movement restriction and treatment of diseased animals | This re-emerging disease can spread rapidly during summer and autumn months, in moist and warm environment (favorable for the growth and reproduction of houseflies, mosquitoes, etc.). The outbreaks are considered to be caused mainly by mechanical vector transmission. Along with 3–7% morbidity rate it can causes great economic losses by restricted animal products to the global trade and costly control and eradication measures | Regular outbreaks are recorded till to date | Data not found | [145,146,147,148] |
Vietnam | China | LSDV of the Vietnamese LSD samples shows a similarity with Neethling virus strains and an identity with Chinese and Russian LSD strains. Both homologues (Neethling strain) and heterologous (Gorgan strain and RM65 strain) vaccines are the possible controlling option | This easily spreading disease spread mainly through insect bites such as mosquitoes, flies, ticks and can also be transmitted through transport of pathogen carrying animals and then share drinkers, feeding areas, milk, semen with others. Although morbidity was recorded approximately 10–20% but the economic effects were not properly mentioned | A total of 93 LSD outbreaks were reported in 93 communes of 36 districts. | Data not available | [149,150,151] | |
2021 | Thailand | Not mentioned | The Thailand strain is similar to the China/GD01/2020 and Hong Kong/2020 isolates. Live attenuated Neethling LSD vaccines have been disseminated for disease control | The emergence was supposed to get entry through illegal movements of infected and carrier animals from the source country and possible inter-farm transmission was occur with the insect vectors such as stable flies and mosquitoes. The overall morbidity and mortality rates were 40.5% and 1.2%, respectively | Several outbreaks were recorded in different provinces till date | Data not available | [152,153,154] |
Pakistan | India | LSDV strains have shared the highest genomic homology with strains reported from India, China, and Bangladesh No successful vaccination protocol was found | LSD was noted as most dangerous, devastating, endemic disease, transmitted by transboundary transmission with allowing the infected population and vectors were observed in all the affected farms It causes serious economic implications by reduced milk production, infertility in cows and bulls, emaciation, abortion, skin damage and death | Still, it is the major threat for livestock in Pakistan because of its rapid spreading nature | Not clearly mentioned | [10,154,155,156] | |
Mongolia | Russia and China | Mongolian isolates shared 100% identity to Chinese, Vietnamese, Russian, and Kazakhstan isolates. No vaccination was reported, only control and preventive measures were adopted | The clinical prevalence of LSD in cattle was approximately 6%, that leads a huge economic loss including restrictions on international trade of live animals and losses animal products such as milk, meat, and hide. | Data not available | China and India | [157] | |
Cambodia | Strain data are not clearly reported but collaborative vaccination to domestic livestock was performed with Lumpyvax TM | Not clearly mentioned but continuous outbreak was recorded in different parts of the country | [158] | ||||
2022 | Afghanistan | Unknown or inconclusive | Not reported in detail Control measures were carried out at the event level with ante and postmortem inspections, vectors control, movement control, selective killing and disposal, slaughtering, surveillance within and outside the restricted zone | Limited data available | [159,160] | ||
Korea | China and Nepal | A serological and molecular prevalence study of LSDV in Korean water deer, native and dairy cattle was performed in South Korea, but no positive reactor was detected. No data is available about LSDV in North Korea. | Limited data available | [161] | |||
Indonesia | India | Limited data available. LSD has infected more than 22,000 animals in 13 provinces including Bali in Indonesia and the outbreaks continue. As Indonesia shares a border with northern Australia, it has become a great threat for the Australian cattle industry | [162] | ||||
2023 | Libya | Unknown or inconclusive | Not detected yet and no information available yet on vaccination | Zonal infection was noted, 10 infected cases were recorded among 26 susceptible cattle with 3 death case | The infection may have already spread beyond the observed/recorded foci, either by vectors or by movements of animals | Tunisia, and other North-West African (Maghreb) countries | [163] |
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Akther, M.; Akter, S.H.; Sarker, S.; Aleri, J.W.; Annandale, H.; Abraham, S.; Uddin, J.M. Global Burden of Lumpy Skin Disease, Outbreaks, and Future Challenges. Viruses 2023, 15, 1861. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091861
Akther M, Akter SH, Sarker S, Aleri JW, Annandale H, Abraham S, Uddin JM. Global Burden of Lumpy Skin Disease, Outbreaks, and Future Challenges. Viruses. 2023; 15(9):1861. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091861
Chicago/Turabian StyleAkther, Mahfuza, Syeda Hasina Akter, Subir Sarker, Joshua W. Aleri, Henry Annandale, Sam Abraham, and Jasim M. Uddin. 2023. "Global Burden of Lumpy Skin Disease, Outbreaks, and Future Challenges" Viruses 15, no. 9: 1861. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091861