Next Article in Journal
Oxidative Stress Induced Mechanisms in the Progression of Periodontal Diseases and Cancer: A Common Approach to Redox Homeostasis?
Next Article in Special Issue
Biomarkers of the Metabolic Syndrome and Breast Cancer Prognosis
Previous Article in Journal
Acral Lentiginous Melanoma in Situ: A Diagnostic and Management Challenge
Previous Article in Special Issue
Midkine: A Novel Prognostic Biomarker for Cancer
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Cancers
Volume 2
Issue 2
10.3390/cancers2020653
cancers-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

MicroRNAs in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC)

by
Masashi Shiiba
*,
Katsuhiro Uzawa
and
Hideki Tanzawa
Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University/1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Cancers 2010, 2(2), 653-669; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020653
Submission received: 5 March 2010 / Revised: 2 April 2010 / Accepted: 15 April 2010 / Published: 21 April 2010
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomarkers: Oncology Studies)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, noncoding RNAs which regulate cell differentiation, proliferation, development, cell cycle, and apoptosis. Expression profiling of miRNAs has been performed and the data show that some miRNAs are upregulated or downregulated in cancer. Several studies suggest that the expression profiles of miRNAs are associated with clinical outcomes. However, the set of miRNAs with altered expressing differs depending on the type of cancer, suggesting that it is important to understand which miRNAs are related to which cancers. Therefore, this review aimed to discuss potentially crucial miRNAs in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC).

1. Introduction

Intensive investigations with innovative technologies have led to the identification of biomarkers that are useful in characterizing cancers. A class of small noncoding RNAs termed microRNAs (miRNAs) has recently been recently highlighted as the biomarker for some types of cancers. miRNAs are endogenous, small, noncoding RNAs of 17–25 nucleotides that are thought to regulate approximately 30% of human genes [1,2,3]. miRNAs were first discovered in worms, and later studies clarified that they are widely conserved in various animals and plants [3,4,5]. They are involved in essential biological activities such as such as cellular differentiation [6,7], proliferation [8,9,10], development [11,12], apoptosis [13,14,15], and regulation of cell cycle [16,17,18]. They perform these actions by regulating target gene expression through imperfect base pairing with the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of target mRNAs of protein-coding genes, leading to the cleavage of homologous mRNA or translational inhibition [1,6,7,19]. They are also differentially expressed in various types of cancers, including oral cancer, compared with noncancerous tissues, suggesting that they may have crucial roles in tumorigenesis [20,21,22,23,24]. It has been shown that there are two types of cancer-related miRNAs; oncogenic or tumor suppressor miRNA. MiR-15a, miR-16-1 are tumor suppressor miRNA targeting 3'-UTR of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 [25]. And let-7 family is also known as tumor suppressor miRNA that functions through inhibiting famous oncogenic mRNAs, such as Ras, c-myc, high mobility group A2 (HMGA2) [26,27,28]. On the contrary, miR-155, miR-17–92 cluster, miR-21, miR-372, miR-373 are found to be oncogenic miRNAs with supporting experimental data [24]. Studies relating the expression profiling of miRNAs to diagnosis and prognosis of cancers have recently been published—some have been shown closely associated with clinical outcome [3,24]. This review aims to discuss miRNA activities in HNSCC/OSCC and clarify the roles of miRNAs as oncogenes or tumor suppressors.

2. miRNA Expression Profiling in HNSCC/OSCC

Most miRNA expression profiling has been performed with the microarray analysis method. Using this method, altered miRNA expression in HNSCC/OSCC has been investigated by several groups [29]. Table 1 summarizes miRNA expression profiles that have been reported recently. Some miRNAs show consistently altered expressions in different studies. For example, upregulated expression of miR-21, -31, -18, and -221 has been reported by at least two independent studies (Table 1).
Upregulated expression of miRNA-21 in tumor samples or cell lines of HNSCC/OSCC has been reported by several investigators [30,31,32,33,34,35]. MiR-21 is also upregulated in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) [36,37], solid tumors of the breast, colon, pancreas, lung, prostate, liver and stomach, and glioblastoma [38,39,40,41]. These facts strongly suggest that miR-21 may be one of the most important miRNAs in various types of cancers including HNSCC/OSCC.
Upregulated expression of miR-31 has been reported in OSCC cell lines [22,42] and in head and neck cancer cell lines [35], and there have been no reports suggesting downregulated expression of miR-31 in OSCC. While miR-31 appears to be upregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma [43] and colorectal carcinoma [44], its downregulated expression has been reported in gastric carcinoma [45] and prostate carcinoma [46]. The function of miR-31 in tumorigenesis remains unclear; the marker might have diverse biological activities depending on the type of cancer.
MiR-221 is overexpressed in head and neck cancer cell lines [35] and in HNSCC samples [34]. Furthermore, upregulation of miRNA-18 was observed in head and neck cancer cell lines [35] and in HNSCC samples and cell lines [31]. Avissar et al. showed upregulated expression of miR-21, -18a, and -221 and downregulated expression of miR-375, and demonstrated that an expression ratio of miR-221: miR-375 showed a high sensitivity and specificity for disease prediction in HNSCC [34].
Table
Table 1. Expression profiling of miRNAs in HNSCC/OSCC.
Table 1. Expression profiling of miRNAs in HNSCC/OSCC.
Authors (year)Altered expression of miRNAsMaterials/methods for miRNA expression profilingRef.
UpDown
Avissar et al.miR-21miR-375HNSCC samples/[34]
(2009)miR-18aMicroarray
miR-221Quantitative RT-PCR
Cervigne et al.miR-21 OSCC and leukoplakia samples/[33]
(2009)miR-181bTaqMan low density arrays (TLDA)
miR-345Quantitative RT-PCR
Chang et al.miR-211 OSCC samples/[63]
(2008) TaqMan MicroRNA Assay kit
Chang et al.miR-21miR-494HNSCC samples and cell lines (JHU-011, JHU-012, FaDu, JHU-09)/[31]
(2008)let-7Microarray
miR-18Quantitative RT-PCR
miR-29c
miR-142-3p
miR-155
miR-146b
Childs et al.miR-21miR-1HNSCC samples/[32]
(2009) miR-133aMicroarray
miR-205Quantitative RT-PCR
let-7d
Henson et al. miR-125bOSCC samples and cell lines (UPCI: SCC084, SCC078, SCC131, SCC040, SCC029, SCC032, SCC104, SCC142, SCC116, SCC066)/Quantitative PCR[21]
(2009)miR-100
Jiang et al.miR-205 HNSCC cell lines (SCC17A, SCC17B, SCCD12, SCC10B, SCC5)/[70]
(2005)Real-time quantitative PCR
Northern blotting
Kozaki et al.miR-374miR-27aOSCC cell lines (Ca9-22, HO-1-N-1, HOC313, HOC815, HSC-2, HSC-3, HSC-4, HSC-5, HSC-6, HSC-7, KON, KOSC-2, NA, OM1, OM2, SKN3, TSU, ZA)/Real-time RT-PCR[22]
(2008)miR-340miR-34b
miR-224miR-34c
miR-10amiR-203
miR-140miR-302c
miR-181amiR-23a
miR-146amiR-27b
miR-126miR-34a
miR-31miR-215
miR-9miR-299
miR-9*miR-330
miR-337
miR-107
miR-133b
miR-138
miR-139
miR-223
miR-204
miR-370
let-7d
miR-95
miR-302a
miR-367
let-7g
miR-23b
miR-128a
miR-148a
miR-155
miR-200c
miR-302b
miR-368
miR-122a
miR-371
let-7a
miR-26b
miR-30e-5p
miR-96
miR-125a
miR-132
miR-200b
miR-199b
miR-296
miR-373
miR-137
miR-197
miR-193a
let-7e
miR-30d
miR-331
miR-342
miR-338
miR-199a
miR-372
miR-184
Li et al.miR-21 Tongue squamous cell carcinoma samples/[30]
(2009) Microarray
Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR
Northern blotting
Park et al. miR-125aSaliva of oral squamous cell carcinoma patients/[65]
(2009)miR-200aReverse transcriptase-preamplification-quantitative PCR
Tran et al.miR-21miR-200cHead and neck cancer cell lines (FaduD, HN6, HN13, UM-SCC9, UM-SCC47, UM-SCC10A, UM-SCC11A, TUM-SCC38, UMSCC4)/MicroarrayNorthern blotting[35]
(2007)miR-200amiR-373
miR-103miR-345
miR-19amiR-382
miR-361miR-342
miR-27amiR-133b
miR-US33-1miR-373*
miR-7bmiR-US25-2-5p
miR-100miR-346
miR-125bmiR-212
miR-28miR-375
miR-18miR-328
miR-22miR-127
miR-15amiR-154
miR-30bmiR-133a
miR-320miR-371
miR-98miR-302d
miR-15bmiR-302c
miR-200bmiR-302b
miR-16miR-449
let-7fmiR-340
miR-29amiR-378
let-7a
miR-221
let-7d
miR-23a
miR-31
miR-107
let-7c
miR-29b
miR-24
miR-23b
miR-205
Wong et al.miR-184miR-133aTongue squamous cell carcinoma samples/Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR of mature miRNAs[42]
(2008)miR-34cmiR-99a
miR-137miR-194
miR-372miR-133b
miR-124amiR-219
miR-21miR-100
miR-124bmiR-125b
miR-31miR-26b
miR-128amiR-138
miR-34bmiR-149
miR-154miR-195
miR-197miR-107
miR-132miR-139
miR-147
miR-325
miR-181c
miR-198
miR-155
miR-30a-3p
miR-338
miR-17-5p
miR-104
miR-134
miR-213
Yu et al.miR-21miR-16The animal model of oral squamous cell carcinoma (hamster)/Microarray[62]
(2009)miR-200bmiR-26a
miR-221miR-29
miR-338miR-124a
miR-762miR-125b
miR-126-5p
miR-143
miR-145
miR-148b
miR-155
miR-199a
miR-203
In contrast, some miRNAs appear to be consistently downregulated in HNSCC/OSCC. Diminished expressions of miRNA-133a [2,7,32,35] and miRNA-133b [22,35,42,47] have been suggested in HNSCC/OSCC. Downregulation of miR-133a has been observed in bladder cancer [48], and loss of miR-133a was associated with colorectal cancer progression [49,50]. Furthermore, decreased expression of miR-133b has also been demonstrated in bladder cancer [48], lung cancer [51], and colorectal cancer [52].
Besides miR-133a, -133b, downregulated expressions of miRNA-125a, -138, -139, -200c, -26b, -302b, -302c, -342, -371, -373, -375 have been reported by independent studies in HNSCC/OSCC (Table 1). These miRNAs show consistently altered expression in the different studies, on the other hand, varying results of miRNA expression profiling data are reported in the literatures. This discrepancy may be due to variations of analysis methods or materials. To interpret the microarray data of miRNAs precisely, Tang et al. have developed a highly sensitive miRNA array platform and introduced a new approach of data normalization based on Northern blot analysis [53]. Yin et al. described the importance of validation using a set of standard methods, such as real-time PCR analysis, for effective analysis [54]. These studies strongly suggest that we should conclude miRNA expression profiling throughout plural experimental approaches.

3. Functional Analysis of miRNAs in HNSCC/OSCC Cells

Studies have shown that miR-21 suppresses apoptosis [55], that inhibition of miR-21 reduces cell growth [38], and that miR-21 regulates tumor suppressor genes such as LRRFIP1 (leucine rich repeat (in FLII) interacting protein 1) [56], PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog) [39], PDCD4 (programmed cell death 4) [57], and TPM1 (tropomyosin 1) [58]. Thus, miR-21 is believed to be one of the oncogenic miRNAs. Liu et al. reported that inhibition of miR-21 with antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) reduced survival and anchorage-independent growth, and induced apoptosis in tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell lines, and that repeated injection of miR-21 ASO suppressed tumor formation in nude mice by reducing cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis. In addition, among patients with tongue SCC, those that overexpressed miR-21 showed poorer prognosis than those who did not. Chang et al. also reported that transfection with miR-21 inhibitor induced a statistically significant increase in cytochrome c release and increased apoptosis in HNSCC cell lines [31]. These results suggest that an inhibitory effect on cancer cell apoptosis in HNSCC/OSCC might be one of the crucial functions of miR-21.
Wong et al. demonstrated that tongue SCC cell lines transfected with miR-133a and miR-133b precursors displayed reduced proliferation rate and increased numbers of apoptotic cells. They also demonstrated that both miR-133a and miR-133b target transcription of pyruvate kinase type M2 (PKM2), a potential oncogene in solid cancers, suggesting that PKM2 and miR-133a and miR-133b might be associated with the tumorigenesis of tongue squamous cell carcinoma [47].
Some studies have implied that miRNAs modulate chemosensitivity or radiosensitivity. Boo et al. reported a correlation between increased HMGA2 expression and enhanced chemosensitivity towards doxorubicin in breast cancer cells [59]. In addition, Hebert et al. showed that transfection of pre-miRNA-98 decreased the expression of HMGA2 and also potentiated resistance to doxorubicin and cisplatin in HNSCC cell lines [60]. These data suggest miR-98 might be one of the factors regulating chemosensitivity in HNSCC/OSCC.
We previously identified 25 genes, which were more highly expressed in radioresistant OSCC cells than in radiosensitive cells in a dose-dependent manner [61]. Henson et al. demonstrated that, among these genes, ID1, MMP13, and FGFR3 were downregulated in OSCC cells transfected with miR-100 [21]. They also suggested that identification of these genes should help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of OSCC radioresistance.
These investigations strongly suggest that certain miRNAs play crucial roles in chemo- and radiosensitivity in HNSCC/OSCC and could be biomarkers for choosing the appropriate therapies in the clinical setting (Table 2).
Table
Table 2. Function of miRNAs in HNSCC/OSCC cells reported in the recent literature.
Table 2. Function of miRNAs in HNSCC/OSCC cells reported in the recent literature.
Authors (Year)Results of functional analysis of miRNAs in HNSCC /OSCC cellsRef.
Hebert et al.
(2007)		Expression of high mobility group A2 (HMGA2), which is associated with enhanced selective chemosensitivity towards the topoisomerase (topo) II inhibitor, doxorubicin, was regulated in part by miR-98.[60]
Henson et al.
(2009)		Transfection of miR-125b and miR-100 reduced cell proliferation and modified the expression of target and nontarget genes. Some of the genes are overexpressed in radioresistant OSCC cells.[21]
Kozaki et al.
(2008)		Transfection of miR-137 or miR-193a reduced cell growth, with down-regulation of the translation of cyclin-dependent kinase 6 or E2F transcription factor, respectively.[22]
Liu et al.
(2009)		Transfection of miR-138 suppressed cell invasion and led to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Knockdown of miR-138 enhanced cell invasion and suppressed apoptosis.[71]
Liu et al.
(2009)		Transfection of miR-222 reduced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1) and manganese superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2). The data indicated that miR-222 inhibits invasion of oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma.[72]
Chang et al.
(2008)		Transfection of miR-21 increased cell growth, and transfection of the miR-21 inhibitor caused decreased cell growth. Flow cytometry analysis showed that mir-21 inhibitor transfection induced significant increase in cytochrome c release and increased apoptosis.[31]
Chang et al.
(2008)		Enforced miR-211 expression increased proliferation, migration, and anchorage-independent colony formation, suggesting that high miR-211 expression may be associated with the progression of oral carcinoma.[63]
Li et al.
(2009)		Inhibiting miR-21 with antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) reduced survival and anchorage-independent growth, and induced apoptosis. Repeated injection of miR-21 ASO suppresses tumor formation in nude mice by reducing cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis[30]
Wong et al.
(2008)		Transfection of miR-133a and miR-133b precursors reduced Pyruvate Kinase type M2 (PKM2) expression was reduced.[47]
Wong et al.
(2008)		Inhibition of miR-184 reduced cell proliferation rate and induced down-regulation of c-Myc. Suppressing miR-184 induced apoptosis.[42]

4. Animal Models

Yu et al. established an animal model of OSCC to investigate expression profiles of miRNAs in oral carcinogenesis [62]. Expressions of miRNAs were compared between the experimental group animals, which received a carcinogen, and the control animals, which did not. They identified five upregulated miRNAs (hsa-miR-21, hsa-miR-200b, hsa-miR-221, hsa-miR-338, and mmu-miR-762) and twelve downregulated miRNAs (hsa-miR-16, hsa-miR-26a, hsa-miR-29a, hsa-miR-124a, hsa-miR-125b, mmu-miR-126-5p, hsa-miR-143, hsa-miR-145, hsa-miR-148b, hsa-miR-155, hsa-miR-199a, and hsa-miR-203) in cancer tissues. Some of these miRNAs have been identified as differentially expressing miRNAs in previous studies using human HNSCC/OSCC samples (Table 1). Therefore, as well as analyses of human samples or human cell lines, those using animal models could contribute to clarifying the roles of miRNAs in OSCC/HNSCC.

5. miRNAs as a Biomarker Associated with HNSCC/OSCC

Several investigators have emphasized the significant roles of miRNAs as biomarkers for HNSCC/OSCC. Recently reported properties of miRNAs as biomarkers in HNSCC/OSCC cells are summarized in Table 3.
An association between higher miR-211 expression and most advanced nodal metastasis, vascular invasion, and poor prognosis has been demonstrated in OSCC [63]. Furthermore, Avissar et al. showed that an expression ratio of upregulated miR-221and downregulated miR-375 showed a high sensitivity and specificity for disease prediction. They concluded that miR-221 and miR-375 should be evaluated as diagnostic biomarkers for prevention and treatment strategies for HNSCC [34].
Cervigne et al. aimed to an identify miRNA signature as a potential predictor of malignant transformation and showed that expressions of miR-21, miR-181b, and miR-345 were consistently increased and associated with lesion severity. They further suggested that these miRNAs may be potential biomarkers to assess risk of malignant transformation in oral leukoplakia [33].
Childs et al. examined the expression levels in primary human HNSCC tumors and found that a low level of miR-205 was significantly associated with loco-regional recurrence. Furthermore, a combination of low levels of both miR-205 and let-7d are closely related to poor survival [32]. In addition, analyses measuring the amount of specific miRNAs in samples other than the tumor lesion have been attempted to assess miRNAs as biomarkers of HNSCC/OSCC.
Originally, microarray analysis revealed seven cancer-related mRNA biomarkers (IL8, IL1B, DUSP1, HA3, OAZ1, S100P, and SAT) that exhibited at least a 3.5-fold elevation in saliva in OSCC patients, suggesting that a panel of saliva mRNAs could be used for oral cancer detection [64]. Based on this investigation, Park et al. measured the presence of a total of 314 miRNAs in saliva and found significantly lower salivary levels of miR-125a and miR-200a in OSCC patients than in healthy controls [65]. They conclude from this that salivary miRNAs as well as salivary mRNAs can be used as potential diagnostic markers for oral cancer.
Since overexpression of miR-184 was found in tongue squamous cell carcinoma tissues, Wong et al. measured plasma levels of miR-184 to determine whether the altered expression levels of miR-184 could be detected in the circulation of patients with tongue squamous cell carcinoma [42]. Plasma miR-184 levels were significantly higher in tongue squamous cell carcinoma patients when compared with normal individuals, and the levels appeared to be reduced after surgical removal of the primary tumors. Furthermore, Liu et al. also revealed that plasma miR-31 was significantly elevated in OSCC patients compared with age and sex-matched control individuals, and miR-31 in plasma was remarkably reduced after surgery [66]. These data indicate that both miR-184 and miR-31 might be an oncogenic miRNA in OSCC, and that its detection in plasma could a clinically useful approach.
Table
Table 3. Properties of miRNAs as biomarkers in HNSCC/OSCC reported in the recent literature.
Table 3. Properties of miRNAs as biomarkers in HNSCC/OSCC reported in the recent literature.
Authors (Year)Properties of miRNAs as biomarkersRef.
Avissar et al.(2009)The expression ratio of “miR-221: miR-375” exhibited the strongest predictive ability for differentiating HNSCC tumor from non-diseased epithelia.[34]
Cervigne et al. (2009)Expression of miR-21, miR-181b, and miR-345 was consistently upregulated and associated with increased severity during progression.[33]
Chang et al. (2008)MiR-211 expression was higher in tumors with nodal metastasis or vascular invasion than less aggressive tumors. Patients with high miR-211 expression had worse survival rates than the other groups. The data suggested that miR-211 expression could be a valuable prognostic indicator.[63]
Childs et al. (2009)Low expression levels of miR205 were associated with loco-regional recurrence. A combination of low levels of miR-205 and low levels of let-7d expression was significantly associated with poor survival rates.[32]
Park et al. (2009)Expression levels of miR-200a and miR-125a were significantly lower in the saliva of OSCC patients.[65]
Wong et al. (2008)Plasma miR-184 levels were significantly higher in tongue cancer patients, and were significantly reduced after surgical removal of the primary tumors.[42]
Liu et al. (2008)MiR-31 in plasma was significantly elevated in OSCC patients, and it was remarkably reduced after tumor resection.[66]

6. Discussion

Tumorigenesis comprises various processes and many molecules are related to its complex mechanisms. Some of them have been suggested as candidates for cancer biomarker; however, conclusive biomarkers have not yet been established in HNSCC/OSCC. Lu et al. found extraordinary diversity in miRNA expression levels across cancers, and demonstrated that a relatively small number of miRNAs yields a lot of diagnostic information [67]. Nelson et al. introduced a new method for high-throughput miRNA detection, in which miRNAs can be isolated and profiled from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue [68]. These are advantages of miRNAs analysis compared with mRNA analysis, and strongly suggest that miRNA analysis is not only reliable but also promising in clinical application. Thus, if further studies concerning biological activities and intensive miRNA expression profiling are performed, miRNA analysis might emerge as a useful tool to improve outcomes in cancer therapy. Garzon et al. summarized a list of miRNAs associated with outcome in cancer, and among these, miR-21, miR-221, and miR-181b were also suggested to have potential as biomarkers in HNSCC/OSCC (Table 3) [24]. This means these miRNAs may have crucial roles in various types of cancer. In addition, other miRNAs might have properties specific to HNSCC/OSCC. Since miRNA is associated with regulation of numerous genes, identification of common target genes is necessary to understand the molecular mechanism of oncogenic or tumor suppressor miRNAs.
Although we focused on miRNAs in HNSCC/OSCC in this review, recent study revealed the role of miRNAs in salivary gland tumor. Zhang et al. found differentially expressed miRNA genes in pleomorphic adenomas of salivary gland [69]. Among the downregulated miRNAs, miR-20b, miR-144 and miR-375 were predicted to interact with the 3'-UTR of Pleomorphic Adenoma Gene 1 (PLGA1) that is a proto-oncogene overexpressing in salivary gland pleomorphic adenomas. The finding suggests that miRNAs should have some roles in tumorigenesis of salivary gland tumors and might be biomarkers in various types of tumors appeared in head and neck region in addition to HNSCC/OSCC.

7. Conclusions

Many studies strongly suggest that miRNA should play crucial roles and could be a biomarker in HNSCC/OSCC. Despite improvements in the understanding of HNSCC/OSCC, the clinical outcome of the disease has not improved significantly. Thus, detailed investigations of miRNA, for example, concerning intercommunication among miRNAs and between miRNAs and other genes, altered protein expression induced by miRNAs, and site-specific miRNA expression profiling, are accordingly required before future clinical trials of therapeutic applications.

References

  1. Bartel, D.P. MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. Cell 2004, 116, 281–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Bartel, D.P. MicroRNAs: target recognition and regulatory functions. Cell 2009, 136, 215–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Lee, Y.S.; Dutta, A. MicroRNAs in cancer. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 2009, 4, 199–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Lee, R.C.; Feinbaum, R.L.; Ambros, V. The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14. Cell 1993, 75, 843–854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Wightman, B.; Ha, I.; Ruvkun, G. Posttranscriptional regulation of the heterochronic gene lin-14 by lin-4 mediates temporal pattern formation in C. elegans. Cell 1993, 75, 855–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Miska, E.A. How microRNAs control cell division, differentiation and death. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2005, 15, 563–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Alvarez-Garcia, I.; Miska, E.A. MicroRNA functions in animal development and human disease. Development 2005, 132, 4653–4662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Galardi, S.; Mercatelli, N.; Giorda, E.; Massalini, S.; Frajese, G.V.; Ciafre, S.A.; Farace, M.G. miR-221 and miR-222 expression affects the proliferation potential of human prostate carcinoma cell lines by targeting p27Kip1. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282, 23716–23724. [Google Scholar]
  9. Hayashita, Y.; Osada, H.; Tatematsu, Y.; Yamada, H.; Yanagisawa, K.; Tomida, S.; Yatabe, Y.; Kawahara, K.; Sekido, Y.; Takahashi, T. A polycistronic microRNA cluster, miR-17-92, is overexpressed in human lung cancers and enhances cell proliferation. Cancer Res. 2005, 65, 9628–9632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Liu, N.; Bezprozvannaya, S.; Williams, A.H.; Qi, X.; Richardson, J.A.; Bassel-Duby, R.; Olson, E.N. microRNA-133a regulates cardiomyocyte proliferation and suppresses smooth muscle gene expression in the heart. Genes Dev. 2008, 22, 3242–3254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Harfe, B.D. MicroRNAs in vertebrate development. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2005, 15, 410–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Williams, A.H.; Liu, N.; van Rooij, E.; Olson, E.N. MicroRNA control of muscle development and disease. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 2009, 21, 461–469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Brennecke, J.; Hipfner, D.R.; Stark, A.; Russell, R.B.; Cohen, S.M. bantam encodes a developmentally regulated microRNA that controls cell proliferation and regulates the proapoptotic gene hid in Drosophila. Cell 2003, 113, 25–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Liu, X.; Nelson, A.; Wang, X.; Kanaji, N.; Kim, M.; Sato, T.; Nakanishi, M.; Li, Y.; Sun, J.; Michalski, J.; Patil, A.; Basma, H.; Rennard, S.I. MicroRNA-146a modulates human bronchial epithelial cell survival in response to the cytokine-induced apoptosis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2009, 380, 177–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Tang, Y.; Zheng, J.; Sun, Y.; Wu, Z.; Liu, Z.; Huang, G. MicroRNA-1 regulates cardiomyocyte apoptosis by targeting Bcl-2. Int. Heart J. 2009, 50, 377–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Carleton, M.; Cleary, M.A.; Linsley, P.S. MicroRNAs and cell cycle regulation. Cell Cycle 2007, 6, 2127–2132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Cohen, E.E.; Zhu, H.; Lingen, M.W.; Martin, L.E.; Kuo, W.L.; Choi, E.A.; Kocherginsky, M.; Parker, J.S.; Chung, C.H.; Rosner, M.R. A feed-forward loop involving protein kinase Calpha and microRNAs regulates tumor cell cycle. Cancer Res. 2009, 69, 65–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Liu, M.; Wu, H.; Liu, T.; Li, Y.; Wang, F.; Wan, H.; Li, X.; Tang, H. Regulation of the cell cycle gene, BTG2, by miR-21 in human laryngeal carcinoma. Cell Res. 2009, 19, 828–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. He, L.; Hannon, G.J. MicroRNAs: small RNAs with a big role in gene regulation. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2004, 5, 522–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Christensen, B.C.; Moyer, B.J.; Avissar, M.; Ouellet, L.G.; Plaza, S.L.; McClean, M.D.; Marsit, C.J.; Kelsey, K.T. A let-7 microRNA-binding site polymorphism in the KRAS 3' UTR is associated with reduced survival in oral cancers. Carcinogenesis 2009, 30, 1003–1007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Henson, B.J.; Bhattacharjee, S.; O'Dee, D.M.; Feingold, E.; Gollin, S.M. Decreased expression of miR-125b and miR-100 in oral cancer cells contributes to malignancy. Genes Chromosomes Canc. 2009, 48, 569–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Kozaki, K.; Imoto, I.; Mogi, S.; Omura, K.; Inazawa, J. Exploration of tumor-suppressive microRNAs silenced by DNA hypermethylation in oral cancer. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 2094–2105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Calin, G.A. MicroRNAs and cancer: what we know and what we still have to learn. Genome Med. 2009, 1, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Garzon, R.; Calin, G.A.; Croce, C.M. MicroRNAs in Cancer. Annu. Rev. Med. 2009, 60, 167–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Cimmino, A.; Calin, G.A.; Fabbri, M.; Iorio, M.V.; Ferracin, M.; Shimizu, M.; Wojcik, S.E.; Aqeilan, R.I.; Zupo, S.; Dono, M.; Rassenti, L.; Alder, H.; Volinia, S.; Liu, C.G.; Kipps, T.J.; Negrini, M.; Croce, C.M. miR-15 and miR-16 induce apoptosis by targeting BCL2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 13944–13949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Johnson, S.M.; Grosshans, H.; Shingara, J.; Byrom, M.; Jarvis, R.; Cheng, A.; Labourier, E.; Reinert, K.L.; Brown, D.; Slack, F.J. RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family. Cell 2005, 120, 635–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Sampson, V.B.; Rong, N.H.; Han, J.; Yang, Q.; Aris, V.; Soteropoulos, P.; Petrelli, N.J.; Dunn, S.P.; Krueger, L.J. MicroRNA let-7a down-regulates MYC and reverts MYC-induced growth in Burkitt lymphoma cells. Cancer Res. 2007, 67, 9762–9770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Lee, Y.S.; Dutta, A. The tumor suppressor microRNA let-7 represses the HMGA2 oncogene. Genes Dev. 2007, 21, 1025–1030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Gomes, C.C.; Gomez, R.S. MicroRNA and oral cancer: future perspectives. Oral Oncol. 2008, 44, 910–914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Li, J.; Huang, H.; Sun, L.; Yang, M.; Pan, C.; Chen, W.; Wu, D.; Lin, Z.; Zeng, C.; Yao, Y.; Zhang, P.; Song, E. MiR-21 indicates poor prognosis in tongue squamous cell carcinomas as an apoptosis inhibitor. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 3998–4008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Chang, S.S.; Jiang, W.W.; Smith, I.; Poeta, L.M.; Begum, S.; Glazer, C.; Shan, S.; Westra, W.; Sidransky, D.; Califano, J.A. MicroRNA alterations in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 123, 2791–2797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Childs, G.; Fazzari, M.; Kung, G.; Kawachi, N.; Brandwein-Gensler, M.; McLemore, M.; Chen, Q.; Burk, R.D.; Smith, R.V.; Prystowsky, M.B.; Belbin, T.J.; Schlecht, N.F. Low-level expression of microRNAs let-7d and miR-205 are prognostic markers of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Am. J. Pathol. 2009, 174, 736–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Cervigne, N.K.; Reis, P.P.; Machado, J.; Sadikovic, B.; Bradley, G.; Galloni, N.N.; Pintilie, M.; Jurisica, I.; Gilbert, R.; Gullane, P.; Irish, J.; Kamel-Reid, S. Identification of a microRNA signature associated with progression of leukoplakia to oral carcinoma. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2009, 18, 4818–4829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Avissar, M.; Christensen, B.C.; Kelsey, K.T.; Marsit, C.J. MicroRNA expression ratio is predictive of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 2850–2855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Tran, N.; McLean, T.; Zhang, X.; Zhao, C.J.; Thomson, J.M.; O'Brien, C.; Rose, B. MicroRNA expression profiles in head and neck cancer cell lines. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2007, 358, 12–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Calin, G.A.; Ferracin, M.; Cimmino, A.; Di Leva, G.; Shimizu, M.; Wojcik, S.E.; Iorio, M.V.; Visone, R.; Sever, N.I.; Fabbri, M.; Iuliano, R.; Palumbo, T.; Pichiorri, F.; Roldo, C.; Garzon, R.; Sevignani, C.; Rassenti, L.; Alder, H.; Volinia, S.; Liu, C.G.; Kipps, T.J.; Negrini, M.; Croce, C.M. A MicroRNA signature associated with prognosis and progression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 353, 1793–1801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Garzon, R.; Volinia, S.; Liu, C.G.; Fernandez-Cymering, C.; Palumbo, T.; Pichiorri, F.; Fabbri, M.; Coombes, K.; Alder, H.; Nakamura, T.; Flomenberg, N.; Marcucci, G.; Calin, G.A.; Kornblau, S.M.; Kantarjian, H.; Bloomfield, C.D.; Andreeff, M.; Croce, C.M. MicroRNA signatures associated with cytogenetics and prognosis in acute myeloid leukemia. Blood 2008, 111, 3183–3189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Frankel, L.B.; Christoffersen, N.R.; Jacobsen, A.; Lindow, M.; Krogh, A.; Lund, A.H. Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) is an important functional target of the microRNA miR-21 in breast cancer cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2008, 283, 1026–1033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Meng, F.; Henson, R.; Wehbe-Janek, H.; Ghoshal, K.; Jacob, S.T.; Patel, T. MicroRNA-21 regulates expression of the PTEN tumor suppressor gene in human hepatocellular cancer. Gastroenterology 2007, 133, 647–658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Volinia, S.; Calin, G.A.; Liu, C.G.; Ambs, S.; Cimmino, A.; Petrocca, F.; Visone, R.; Iorio, M.; Roldo, C.; Ferracin, M.; Prueitt, R.L.; Yanaihara, N.; Lanza, G.; Scarpa, A.; Vecchione, A.; Negrini, M.; Harris, C.C.; Croce, C.M. A microRNA expression signature of human solid tumors defines cancer gene targets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 2257–2261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ciafre, S.A.; Galardi, S.; Mangiola, A.; Ferracin, M.; Liu, C.G.; Sabatino, G.; Negrini, M.; Maira, G.; Croce, C.M.; Farace, M.G. Extensive modulation of a set of microRNAs in primary glioblastoma. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2005, 334, 1351–1358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Wong, T.S.; Liu, X.B.; Wong, B.Y.; Ng, R.W.; Yuen, A.P.; Wei, W.I. Mature miR-184 as potential oncogenic microRNA of squamous cell carcinoma of tongue. Clin. Cancer Res. 2008, 14, 2588–2592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Wong, Q.W.; Lung, R.W.; Law, P.T.; Lai, P.B.; Chan, K.Y.; To, K.F.; Wong, N. MicroRNA-223 is commonly repressed in hepatocellular carcinoma and potentiates expression of Stathmin1. Gastroenterology 2008, 135, 257–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Slaby, O.; Svoboda, M.; Fabian, P.; Smerdova, T.; Knoflickova, D.; Bednarikova, M.; Nenutil, R.; Vyzula, R. Altered expression of miR-21, miR-31, miR-143 and miR-145 is related to clinicopathologic features of colorectal cancer. Oncology 2007, 72, 397–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Zhang, Y.; Guo, J.; Li, D.; Xiao, B.; Miao, Y.; Jiang, Z.; Zhuo, H. Down-regulation of miR-31 expression in gastric cancer tissues and its clinical significance. Med. Oncol. 2009, in press. [Google Scholar]
  46. Schaefer, A.; Jung, M.; Mollenkopf, H.J.; Wagner, I.; Stephan, C.; Jentzmik, F.; Miller, K.; Lein, M.; Kristiansen, G.; Jung, K. Diagnostic and prognostic implications of microRNA profiling in prostate carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 2010, 126, 1166–1176. [Google Scholar]
  47. Wong, T.S.; Liu, X.B.; Chung-Wai Ho, A.; Po-Wing Yuen, A.; Wai-Man Ng, R.; Ignace Wei, W. Identification of pyruvate kinase type M2 as potential oncoprotein in squamous cell carcinoma of tongue through microRNA profiling. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 123, 251–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Ichimi, T.; Enokida, H.; Okuno, Y.; Kunimoto, R.; Chiyomaru, T.; Kawamoto, K.; Kawahara, K.; Toki, K.; Kawakami, K.; Nishiyama, K.; Tsujimoto, G.; Nakagawa, M.; Seki, N. Identification of novel microRNA targets based on microRNA signatures in bladder cancer. Int. J. Cancer 2009, 125, 345–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Sarver, A.L.; French, A.J.; Borralho, P.M.; Thayanithy, V.; Oberg, A.L.; Silverstein, K.A.; Morlan, B.W.; Riska, S.M.; Boardman, L.A.; Cunningham, J.M.; Subramanian, S.; Wang, L.; Smyrk, T.C.; Rodrigues, C.M.; Thibodeau, S.N.; Steer, C.J. Human colon cancer profiles show differential microRNA expression depending on mismatch repair status and are characteristic of undifferentiated proliferative states. BMC Cancer 2009, 9, 401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Arndt, G.M.; Dossey, L.; Cullen, L.M.; Lai, A.; Druker, R.; Eisbacher, M.; Zhang, C.; Tran, N.; Fan, H.; Retzlaff, K.; Bittner, A.; Raponi, M. Characterization of global microRNA expression reveals oncogenic potential of miR-145 in metastatic colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer 2009, 9, 374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Crawford, M.; Batte, K.; Yu, L.; Wu, X.; Nuovo, G.J.; Marsh, C.B.; Otterson, G.A.; Nana-Sinkam, S.P. MicroRNA 133B targets pro-survival molecules MCL-1 and BCL2L2 in lung cancer. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2009, 388, 483–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Bandres, E.; Cubedo, E.; Agirre, X.; Malumbres, R.; Zarate, R.; Ramirez, N.; Abajo, A.; Navarro, A.; Moreno, I.; Monzo, M.; Garcia-Foncillas, J. Identification by Real-time PCR of 13 mature microRNAs differentially expressed in colorectal cancer and non-tumoral tissues. Mol. Cancer 2006, 5, 29. [Google Scholar]
  53. Tang, X.; Gal, J.; Zhuang, X.; Wang, W.; Zhu, H.; Tang, G. A simple array platform for microRNA analysis and its application in mouse tissues. RNA 2007, 13, 1803–1822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Yin, J.Q.; Zhao, R.C.; Morris, K.V. Profiling microRNA expression with microarrays. Trends Biotechnol. 2008, 26, 70–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Chan, J.A.; Krichevsky, A.M.; Kosik, K.S. MicroRNA-21 is an antiapoptotic factor in human glioblastoma cells. Cancer Res. 2005, 65, 6029–6033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Li, Y.; Li, W.; Yang, Y.; Lu, Y.; He, C.; Hu, G.; Liu, H.; Chen, J.; He, J.; Yu, H. MicroRNA-21 targets LRRFIP1 and contributes to VM-26 resistance in glioblastoma multiforme. Brain Res. 2009, 1286, 13–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Asangani, I.A.; Rasheed, S.A.; Nikolova, D.A.; Leupold, J.H.; Colburn, N.H.; Post, S.; Allgayer, H. MicroRNA-21 (miR-21) post-transcriptionally downregulates tumor suppressor Pdcd4 and stimulates invasion, intravasation and metastasis in colorectal cancer. Oncogene 2008, 27, 2128–2136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Qi, L.; Bart, J.; Tan, L.P.; Platteel, I.; Sluis, T.; Huitema, S.; Harms, G.; Fu, L.; Hollema, H.; Berg, A. Expression of miR-21 and its targets (PTEN, PDCD4, TM1) in flat epithelial atypia of the breast in relation to ductal carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma. BMC Cancer 2009, 9, 163. [Google Scholar]
  59. Boo, L.M.; Lin, H.H.; Chung, V.; Zhou, B.; Louie, S.G.; O'Reilly, M.A.; Yen, Y.; Ann, D.K. High mobility group A2 potentiates genotoxic stress in part through the modulation of basal and DNA damage-dependent phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related protein kinase activation. Cancer Res. 2005, 65, 6622–6630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Hebert, C.; Norris, K.; Scheper, M.A.; Nikitakis, N.; Sauk, J.J. High mobility group A2 is a target for miRNA-98 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Mol. Cancer 2007, 6, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Ishigami, T.; Uzawa, K.; Higo, M.; Nomura, H.; Saito, K.; Kato, Y.; Nakashima, D.; Shiiba, M.; Bukawa, H.; Yokoe, H.; Kawata, T.; Ito, H.; Tanzawa, H. Genes and molecular pathways related to radioresistance of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells. Int. J. Cancer 2007, 120, 2262–2270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Yu, T.; Wang, X.Y.; Gong, R.G.; Li, A.; Yang, S.; Cao, Y.T.; Wen, Y.M.; Wang, C.M.; Yi, X.Z. The expression profile of microRNAs in a model of 7,12-dimethyl-benz[a]anthrance-induced oral carcinogenesis in Syrian hamster. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 28, 64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Chang, K.W.; Liu, C.J.; Chu, T.H.; Cheng, H.W.; Hung, P.S.; Hu, W.Y.; Lin, S.C. Association between high miR-211 microRNA expression and the poor prognosis of oral carcinoma. J. Dent. Res. 2008, 87, 1063–1068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Li, Y.; St John, M.A.; Zhou, X.; Kim, Y.; Sinha, U.; Jordan, R.C.; Eisele, D.; Abemayor, E.; Elashoff, D.; Park, N.H.; Wong, D.T. Salivary transcriptome diagnostics for oral cancer detection. Clin. Cancer Res. 2004, 10, 8442–8450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Park, N.J.; Zhou, H.; Elashoff, D.; Henson, B.S.; Kastratovic, D.A.; Abemayor, E.; Wong, D.T. Salivary microRNA: discovery, characterization, and clinical utility for oral cancer detection. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 5473–5477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Liu, C.J. ; Kao, S.Y.; Tu, H.F.; Tsai, M.M.; Chang, K.W.; Lin, S.C. Increase of microRNA miR-31 level in plasma could be a potential marker of oral cancer. Oral Dis. 2010, in press. [Google Scholar]
  67. Lu, J.; Getz, G.; Miska, E.A.; Alvarez-Saavedra, E.; Lamb, J.; Peck, D.; Sweet-Cordero, A.; Ebert, B.L.; Mak, R.H.; Ferrando, A.A.; Downing, J.R.; Jacks, T.; Horvitz, H.R.; Golub, T.R. MicroRNA expression profiles classify human cancers. Nature 2005, 435, 834–838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Nelson, P.T.; Baldwin, D.A.; Scearce, L.M.; Oberholtzer, J.C.; Tobias, J.W.; Mourelatos, Z. Microarray-based, high-throughput gene expression profiling of microRNAs. Nat. Methods 2004, 1, 155–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Zhang, X.; Cairns, M.; Rose, B.; O'Brien, C.; Shannon, K.; Clark, J.; Gamble, J.; Tran, N. Alterations in miRNA processing and expression in pleomorphic adenomas of the salivary gland. Int.J.Cancer 2009, 124, 2855–2863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Jiang, J.; Lee, E.J.; Gusev, Y.; Schmittgen, T.D. Real-time expression profiling of microRNA precursors in human cancer cell lines. Nucleic Acids Res. 2005, 33, 5394–5403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Liu, X.; Jiang, L.; Wang, A.; Yu, J.; Shi, F.; Zhou, X. MicroRNA-138 suppresses invasion and promotes apoptosis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Lett. 2009, 286, 217–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Liu, X.; Yu, J.; Jiang, L.; Wang, A.; Shi, F.; Ye, H.; Zhou, X. MicroRNA-222 regulates cell invasion by targeting matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1) and manganese superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) in tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 2009, 6, 131–139. [Google Scholar]

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Shiiba, M.; Uzawa, K.; Tanzawa, H. MicroRNAs in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC). Cancers 2010, 2, 653-669. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020653

AMA Style

Shiiba M, Uzawa K, Tanzawa H. MicroRNAs in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC). Cancers. 2010; 2(2):653-669. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020653

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shiiba, Masashi, Katsuhiro Uzawa, and Hideki Tanzawa. 2010. "MicroRNAs in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC)" Cancers 2, no. 2: 653-669. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020653

APA Style

Shiiba, M., Uzawa, K., & Tanzawa, H. (2010). MicroRNAs in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC). Cancers, 2(2), 653-669. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020653

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop