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Article

Mungbean (Vigna radiata) Growth and Yield Response in Relation to Water Stress and Elevated Day/Night Temperature Conditions

by
Gulshan Mahajan
1,2,
Kylie Wenham
1 and
Bhagirath Singh Chauhan
1,3,*
1
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
2
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India
3
School of Agriculture and Food Sustainability (AGFS), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2023, 13(10), 2546; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13102546
Submission received: 17 August 2023 / Revised: 28 September 2023 / Accepted: 28 September 2023 / Published: 3 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic Plant Disorders: Challenges and Opportunities)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Information regarding the relative importance of elevated day/night-time temperatures combined with water stress on mungbean yield is limited. This study aimed to investigate the yield response of mungbean cultivars to different water stress and temperature regimes under controlled glasshouse conditions. Two mungbean cultivars, Celera II-AU and Jade-AU, were grown and evaluated under four temperature regimes with and without water stress, each replicated 10 times in a randomized complete block design. The four temperature regimes were as follows: (i) HTHT: Plants were consistently exposed to high day/high night temperatures (35/25 °C). (ii) LTHT: Plants experienced ambient day/ambient night temperatures (25/15 °C) for the first 35 days, followed by the HTHT environment. (iii) LTLT: Plants were maintained at ambient day/ambient night temperatures (25/15 °C) throughout the experiment. (iv) HTLT: Plants were subjected to high day/high night temperatures (35/25 °C) for the initial 35 days, followed by the LTLT environment. Under water stress conditions, mungbean yield declined significantly in the HTHT environment by 57% for Jade-AU and 76% for Celera II-AU compared to the LTLT environment. The highest seed yield (10.2 g plant−1 for Jade-AU and 11.4 g plant−1 for Celera II-AU) for both cultivars was observed when grown without water stress in the LTLT environment. However, yield decreased substantially when plants experienced combined heat and water stress during the reproductive stage (HTHT and LTHT environments). Without water stress, mungbean yield under the HTHT environment decreased by 30% for Jade-AU and 60% for Celera II-AU compared to the LTLT environment. Surprisingly, no significant difference in response to water stress was observed between the two cultivars. Furthermore, when grown under no-water stress and HTHT environments, the yield of Celera II-AU was reduced by 37% compared to Jade-AU. Similarly, a comparable response was seen between cultivars under no-water stress and LTHT environment. The results indicated that water and heat stress negatively affected mungbean seed yield. Moreover, it was observed that Jade-AU outperformed Celera II-AU regarding seed yield under heat-stress conditions. In conclusion, this study suggests that adjusting sowing time and selecting suitable heat-tolerant cultivars, such as Jade-AU, could enhance mungbean yield under heat and water stress conditions. The results demonstrate substantial impacts on mungbean productivity from changing climatic and water stress conditions and these findings can be utilized for improving mungbean productivity in dryland regions.

1. Introduction

Mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek)) is an important short-duration legume crop cultivated in subtropical and tropical regions of the world [1]. In Australia, it is generally grown in the summer season. This crop plays a vital role in nutritional food security as its seeds contain 20–24% protein, 2% oil, 2% fat, 6% fiber, and a sufficient amount of Vitamin A and B [2]. In eastern Australia, mungbean is primarily exported, with almost 90% of the grain sold to different countries, resulting in revenue gains of AUD 180 million [3].
Mungbean production in Australia has increased from 45,000 t to 130,000 t over the last decade due to the introduction of new cultivars with higher yield potential [4]. The current average productivity of mungbean in Australia is about 1.1 t ha−1, and the average yield varies from 0.4 to 1.2 t ha−1, depending on the season and weather conditions [5] as refereed by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences (ABARES), accessed on 10 June 2022. Mungbean is sensitive to temperature and water stress conditions. It grows well within the temperature range of 28–30 °C [6]. It has been observed that high temperatures (>35 °C day temperature) and water stress conditions during the reproductive stage of mungbean crops affect crop yield [7,8,9].
In the climate change scenario, it was predicted that the frequency of days with high-temperature conditions (>35 °C) in eastern Australia is likely to increase by 60% in 2030 [10]. Another study on climate change in Australia has projected that the frequent occurrence of high-temperature conditions, drought conditions, and increased CO2 has a negative influence on yield in major crops [11,12,13]. Heat stress concerning sudden rises in temperature at the critical reproductive stages of crops could cause yield decline in many crops, including mungbean [14,15]. Most studies on heat stress in crops have focussed on rising daytime or average daily temperatures; however, average night high-temperature stress in crops has been overlooked. It was observed that in the last century, the speed of rise in the night temperature was 1.4 times faster than the day temperature [16].
The rise in the night temperature has negatively affected crops such as wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) [17,18]. Water stress reduces the yield in many crops and the magnitude of the reduction depends on the stage of the crop when water stress occurs [19]. Water stress at the reproductive stage of mungbean affects the yield more severely than any other stage of crop growth [20]. Crop tolerance to temperature and water stress is a complex trait, and complexity occurs at the cellular level [21].
High day and night temperatures coupled with water stress conditions can cause functional damage to plants through oxidative stress and protein denaturation [22,23]. Such damage can result in chlorophyll degradation and low pollen viability crop yield. Knowledge gaps exist with the response of mungbean plants to high day and night temperatures coupled with water stress. Limited information is available regarding the relative importance of day and night temperatures (>40/25 °C; day/night) on mungbean growth and development [8]. However, previous information [8] could not differentiate the independent effect of high day and night temperatures influencing the seed yield coupled with water stress. Elevated temperatures can exert severe stress on plants under water stress conditions. This response may also vary with cultivars. It was suggested that to improve the productivity of mungbean, cultivars capable of producing high biomass production with the ability of maximum translocation to seeds are required [24]. A high harvest index is a complex trait among cultivars and very sensitive to environmental conditions including abiotic stress [25]. It was observed that mungbean cultivars show differential behavior for biomass and its translocation to seeds under water stress [7,26]. It was hypothesized that the yield of mungbean cultivars may vary in response to high temperature and water stress conditions. Therefore, this study was planned to understand the interaction effect of high day and night temperatures, water stress, and cultivars on the growth and yield of mungbean plants. The objective of this study was to quantify the yield potential of two mungbean cultivars in response to the combined effect of high-temperature and water stress conditions.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Experimental Setup and Observations

A pot experiment was conducted at the research facility of The University of Queensland, Gatton, Australia, under controlled environment glasshouse conditions. The experiment with mungbean commenced on 19 October 2021 and terminated on 18 January 2022. Two controlled environment glasshouses (referred to as bays) were chosen for the experiment; one maintained at high ambient day/high night (35/25 °C) and the other at ambient day/night (25/15 °C; LTLT) temperatures. The experiment had three factors in a randomized complete block design: (i) temperature regimes, (ii) water stress treatments, and (iii) cultivars. We implemented four temperature regimes as follows: (i) HTHT: Plants were consistently exposed to high day/high night temperatures (35/25 °C). (ii) LTHT: Plants experienced ambient day/ambient night temperatures (25/15 °C) for the first 35 days, followed by the HTHT environment. (iii) LTLT: Plants were maintained at ambient day/ambient night temperatures (25/15 °C) throughout the experiment. (iv) HTLT: Plants were subjected to high day/high night temperatures (35/25 °C) for the initial 35 days, followed by the LTLT environment.
Within each temperature regime, two mungbean cultivars (Celera II-AU and Jade-AU) were grown and two water stress treatments were imposed 35 days after sowing (no water stress: watering every two days, soil moisture depleted from 100% to 65% field capacity [27]; water stress: no water stress up to 35 days after sowing; after that withholding watering up to harvest). In water-stressed plants, life-saving watering was performed for the survival of plants, whenever required. The field capacity of the soil was assessed as per the procedure followed in our previous studies and soil moisture in non-stressed pots was maintained with the help of a soil moisture probe meter by regularly monitoring the pots [28].
Initially, five seeds of each cultivar were planted per pot filled with a soil media (60% washed sand + 40% field soil); and 10 days after planting, plants were thinned to one plant per pot. The GPS location of the field soil was 27.5514° S and 152.3428° E. The pot size was 30 cm in diameter and height. Each treatment had 10 replications and the experiment had 160 pots arranged in a randomized block design. At the time of sowing, pot numbers were divided into two halves. For the initial 35 days, 80 pots (40 pots of each cultivar) were kept in the HTHT bay and 80 pots were kept in the LTLT bay; plants were grown without any water stress. In each bay, pots were rotated for re-randomization once a week to minimize within-glasshouse environment effects. After 35 days of sowing, half of the pots of each cultivar from the HTHT bay were moved to the LTLT bay and vice-versa. At 35 days after sowing, the plant height of mungbean in HTHT and LTLT environments was 10.3 and 4.8 cm, respectively. After the shifting of pots, water stress treatments were imposed. No fertilizer was applied to the plants, and pots were kept weed-free throughout the experiments by pulling weeds when they emerged.

2.2. Plant Harvesting and Measurements

At physiological maturity, the height of each plant was measured from the base to the tip of the plant, and plants were cut from the soil surface level, and separated into shoots and pods. The pods of each plant were counted, packed in paper bags, and then kept in an oven at 30 °C for seven days. Afterward, pods were threshed for seed weight per plant. For shoot biomass, shoots of each plant at the time of harvesting were collected in a paper bag, kept in an oven at 70 °C for 3 days, and then weighed. The harvest index of the plant was calculated by dividing the seed weight by the plant’s total biomass (shoot biomass + pod weight) of the plant.

2.3. Statistical Analyses

Experimental data were subjected to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS software, SAS version 9.4 (SAS, 2017 Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Where the ANOVA found significant treatment effects, means were separated at p ≤ 0.05 using Fisher’s protected LSD test. Data were also validated to meet the normality and homogeneity of variance assumptions before analysis.

3. Results

3.1. Plant Height

Mungbean height was influenced by the interactive effect of temperature regimes and water stress treatments (Table 1; Table S1). In each temperature regime, the water stress treatment significantly reduced the mungbean height compared with the no-water stress treatment. The impact on plant height for water-stressed plants over non-water-stressed plants was higher in the HTHT treatment compared with the other temperature regime treatments. In both water treatments, the height of mungbean plants was lowest in the LTLT treatment compared with other temperature regimes. Plants in the LTLT treatment when grown without water stress attained a similar height (38.7 cm) with water-stressed plants grown under HTHT (35.3 cm) and HTLT (35.5 cm) environments. Mungbean height was also influenced by the interactive effect of temperature regimes and cultivars (Table 1). Cultivar Jade-AU (44.4 cm) attained a lower height than Celera II-AU (48.2 cm) in the HTHT treatment, while in other temperature regimes, both cultivars attained similar heights. Both cultivars attained the highest and lowest heights in HTHT and LTLT treatments, respectively.

3.2. Seed Yield

The seed yield was influenced by the interactive effect of cultivar, temperature regimes, and water stress treatments (Table 2; Table S1). Among all treatment combinations, the seed yield was highest (10.2 and 11.4 g plant−1 for Jade-AU and Celera II-AU, respectively) when plants were grown with no water stress in the LTLT environment. Under the no-water stress situation, Celera II-AU had a higher seed yield than Jade-AU in the HTLT treatment, while Jade-AU had a higher seed yield than Celera II-AU in HTHT and LTHT treatments. In each temperature regime, the seed yield of each cultivar reduced under water stress compared with no water stress situations. Water-stressed plants in LTLT and HTLT treatments had higher seed yields than in the HTHT treatment. Under the no water stress situation, both cultivars had lower seed yields in HTHT and LTHT treatments compared with the LTLT treatment, and the magnitude of the reduction was greater in Celera II-AU than in Jade-AU. However, both cultivars produced similar yields under no water stress and LTLT environmental situations. The seed yield of Celera II-AU under no water stress and HTHT environments was similar to that of water-stressed plants in LTHT, LTLT, and HTLT environments.

3.3. Plant Biomass

Plant biomass was influenced by the interactive effect of cultivar, temperature regimes, and water stress treatments (Table 2; Table S1). Among all treatment combinations, plant biomass was highest (23 and 27 g plant−1 for Jade-AU and Celera II-AU, respectively) when plants were grown with no water stress in the LTLT environment. Under the no water stress situation, Celera II-AU had a higher biomass than Jade-AU in the LTLT treatment, while, Jade-AU had a higher biomass than Celera II-AU in HTHT and LTHT treatments. In each temperature regime, the plant biomass of both cultivars reduced under water stress compared with no water stress situations. Water-stressed plants in the LTLT treatment had higher biomass (8 and 9 g plant−1 for Jade-AU and Celera II-AU, respectively) than in the HTHT treatment (4 and 3 g plant−1 for Jade-AU and Celera II-AU, respectively). Under the no water stress situation, both cultivars had lower biomass in HTHT and LTHT treatments compared with the LTLT treatment, and the magnitude of the reduction was greater in Celera II-AU than in Jade-AU. However, under no water stress and LTLT environmental situations, the biomass of Celera II-AU was higher than Jade-AU. The plant biomass of Celera II-AU under no water stress and HTHT environments was found to be similar to that of water-stressed plants in the LTLT environment.

3.4. Pod Weight per Plant

Pod weight per plant was influenced by the interactive effect of cultivar, temperature regimes, and water stress treatments (Table 2; Table S1). Among all treatment combinations, pod weight per plant was highest (14.2 and 16.4 g plant−1 for Jade-AU and Celera II-AU, respectively) when plants were grown without water stress in the LTLT environment. Under the no water stress situation, Jade-AU had a higher pod weight per plant than Celera II-AU in HTHT and LTHT treatments. In each temperature regime, pod weight per plant of both cultivars was reduced under water stress compared to that under no water conditions. Water-stressed plants in the LTLT treatment had higher pod weight per plant than in the HTHT treatment. Under the no water stress situation, both cultivars had lower pod weight per plant in HTHT compared with the LTLT treatment, and the magnitude of reduction was greater in Celera II-AU than in Jade-AU. However, under no water stress and LTLT environmental situations, both cultivars produced similar pod weights per plant. The pod weight per plant of Celera II-AU under no water stress and HTHT environment was similar to water-stressed plants in LTHT, LTLT, and HTLT environments.

3.5. Harvest Index

The harvest index (HI) was influenced by the interactive effect of cultivars, temperature regimes, and water stress treatments (Table 2; Table S1). The HI ranged from 0.33 to 0.58 under different treatment combinations. Under the no water stress situation, the two cultivars had similar HI in each temperature regime. However, under the water stress situation, Celera II-AU had a higher HI than Jade-AU in the LTHT environment, while Jade-AU had a higher HI than Celera II-AU in the HTLT environment. Under the water stress situation, plants of both cultivars in the HTHT environment had lower HI than in other temperature regimes. Under the water stress situation, the HI of Jade-AU in LTLT and HTLT environments was higher than in the LTHT environment.

4. Discussion

This study observed the highest seed yield when mungbean plants were grown without any perceived abiotic stress under ambient day/ambient night (25/15 °C) conditions. In the absence of water stress, high temperatures experienced during the reproductive stage of the crop (for example, in HTHT and LTHT environments) caused a significant reduction in yield. The Celera II-AU cultivar was more sensitive to high-temperature conditions than the Jade-AU cultivar when grown under no water stress conditions. A previous study found that heat stress under high-temperature conditions (~40 °C) to mungbean during flowering duration caused flower abortion, leading to yield losses through a reduction in viable pods and therefore seeds [29].
Leaf rolling, chlorosis in leaves, and accelerated phenological development are common symptoms of heat stress in mungbean plants that may reduce yield [8,22,29]. Similarly, increased plant height and reduced crop biomass under heat stress treatments (HTHT and LTHT environments) compared with ambient temperature conditions (LTLT) were observed in the present study. Leaf rolling was observed when plants experienced heat and water stress conditions (Figure 1). Similarly to other studies, an interaction between genotype and yield under heat stress was observed [8,30]. This could be the reason that Jade-AU and Celera II-AU cultivars produced similar yields under the LTLT environment; however, Celera II-AU had a lower yield than Jade-AU in HTHT and LTHT environments when plants were grown in no water stress conditions.
In this study, seed yield was reduced by water stress in each temperature regime compared with plants that did not experience water stress. The yield reduction was quite severe when plants experienced simultaneous water and heat stress (HTHT). Heat and water stress together can lead to a reduction in photosynthesis, biomass production, a shorter period of pod development grain fill, and reduced seed yield [31]. This was evident in this study by observing lower HI, crop biomass, and pod weight per plant of water-stressed plants when grown under severe heat stress (HTHT) compared with no-heat stress (LTLT). Various researchers reported that yield loss in legume crops under drought stress was due to reduced biomass and poor partitioning towards grain [32,33,34]. Morphological attributes, such as plant height, leaf area, and crop biomass were reduced when plants experienced water stress [35].
This study suggests that plants under no water stress and ambient temperature environments (LTLT) develop a larger canopy, thereby increasing photosynthetic capacity to accumulate enough resources to increase the number of pods per plant. It was also confirmed that water and heat stress together at the reproductive stage of the plant have a detrimental role in attaining a high yield due to reduced biomass, pod weight per plant, and HI as evident by water-stressed plants in the HTHT environment.
It was demonstrated in this study that water and heat stress resulted in reduced mungbean yield. The yield of mungbean reduced drastically when plants faced both heat and water stresses. Results further implied that cultivars having moderate tolerance to heat and water stress at the reproductive stage of plants could yield better by maintaining HI and crop biomass as in the case of Jade-AU. These observations further suggested that evaluating many genotypes for heat and water stress tolerance in mungbean may provide some cues for strengthening the pre-breeding program for handling complex traits, such as heat and water stress. Preliminary observations from this study suggested that growers may adjust planting time and choose suitable cultivars under the scenario of heat and water stress in the wake of climate change. This study was conducted only for one year in controlled environmental conditions; therefore, additional data are required for robust recommendations under field conditions.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy13102546/s1, Table S1: Analysis of variance for different parameters along with p-value.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: B.S.C., G.M. and K.W; Formal analysis: G.M.; Funding acquisition: B.S.C.; Investigation: B.S.C. and G.M.; Methodology: B.S.C., G.M. and K.W; Project administration: B.S.C.; Writing—original draft: G.M.; Writing—review and editing: B.S.C. and K.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data are within the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

Authors are thankful to Bec Archer for providing glasshouse facilities at the University of Queensland.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 13 02546 g001
Figure 1. A view of non-water-stressed (LHS) and water-stressed (RHS) mungbean plants under the high-temperature regimes (35/25 °C).
Figure 1. A view of non-water-stressed (LHS) and water-stressed (RHS) mungbean plants under the high-temperature regimes (35/25 °C).
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Table 1. The interaction effect of temperature regimes, water stress treatments and cultivars on mungbean height (cm).
Table 1. The interaction effect of temperature regimes, water stress treatments and cultivars on mungbean height (cm).
Treatments HTHTLTHTLTLTHTLT
Water StressNo Water StressWater StressNo Water StressWater StressNo Water StressWater StressNo Water Stress
Plant height (cm)
Jade-AU35.553.333.048.627.939.034.047.9
Celera II-AU35.161.329.447.226.338.537.150.7
LSD (0.05)Temperature regimes × water stress = 3.4; Temperature regimes × cultivar = 3.4; Temperature regimes × water stress × cultivars = nonsignificant
HTHT: Plants were kept throughout high day/high night temperature (35/25 °C); LTHT: Plants were kept at ambient day/high night (25/15 °C) for the first 35 days followed by HTHT environment; LTLT: Plants were kept throughout ambient day/ambient night (25/15 °C); HTLT: Plants were kept at high day/ambient night (35/25 °C) for first 35 days followed by LTLT environment. LSD: Least significance differences at the 5% level of significance.
Table 2. The interaction effect of temperature regimes, water stress treatments, and cultivars on mungbean seed yield, mungbean biomass (g/plant), pod weight (g) per plant, and harvest index.
Table 2. The interaction effect of temperature regimes, water stress treatments, and cultivars on mungbean seed yield, mungbean biomass (g/plant), pod weight (g) per plant, and harvest index.
TreatmentsHTHTLTHTLTLTHTLT
Water StressNo Water StressWater StressNo Water StressWater StressNo Water StressWater StressNo Water Stress
Seed yield (g/plant)
Jade-AU1.77.12.57.84.010.23.86.8
Celera II-AU1.14.53.45.74.611.43.28.5
LSD (0.05)1.6
Plant biomass (g/plant)
Jade-AU4.317.35.617.07.622.66.616.9
Celera II-AU3.29.66.113.29.026.66.719.5
LSD (0.05)3.0
Pod weight (g/plant)
Jade-AU2.49.83.510.85.714.25.010.5
Celera II-AU1.65.84.18.06.816.44.612.4
LSD (0.05)2.2
Harvest index
Jade-AU0.330.410.440.450.540.450.580.39
Celera II-AU0.340.480.550.430.500.430.490.43
LSD (0.05)0.08
HTHT: Plants were kept throughout high day/high night temperature (35/25 °C); LTHT: Plants were kept at ambient day/high night (25/15 °C) for the first 35 days followed by HTHT environment; LTLT: Plants were kept throughout ambient day/ambient night (25/15 °C); HTLT: Plants were kept at high day/ambient night (35/25 °C) for first 35 days followed by LTLT environment. LSD: Least significance differences at the 5% level of significance.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Mahajan, G.; Wenham, K.; Chauhan, B.S. Mungbean (Vigna radiata) Growth and Yield Response in Relation to Water Stress and Elevated Day/Night Temperature Conditions. Agronomy 2023, 13, 2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13102546

AMA Style

Mahajan G, Wenham K, Chauhan BS. Mungbean (Vigna radiata) Growth and Yield Response in Relation to Water Stress and Elevated Day/Night Temperature Conditions. Agronomy. 2023; 13(10):2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13102546

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mahajan, Gulshan, Kylie Wenham, and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan. 2023. "Mungbean (Vigna radiata) Growth and Yield Response in Relation to Water Stress and Elevated Day/Night Temperature Conditions" Agronomy 13, no. 10: 2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13102546

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