“Nothing Is Like It Was Before”: The Dynamics between Land-Use and Land-Cover, and Livelihood Strategies in the Northern Vietnam Borderlands
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Conceptual Framework: Land Change Science, Frontiers and Livelihood Diversification
3. Context: Vietnam’s Northern Uplands
4. Methods
4.1. LULC and LULCC Mapping
Province | Dates |
---|---|
Lai Châu | 2009 November 03 |
2000 November 02 | |
Lào Cai | 2009 November 12 |
1999 December 27 | |
Hà Giang | 2009 November 05 |
2000 November 04 |
4.2. Assessing the LULC Mapping
Ground Reference | Total | Producer Acc. (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water | Closed Canopy | Open Canopy | Shrubs | Bare Soil | Built-Up | ||||
Classification | Water | 16 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 19 | 84.21 |
Closed canopy | 3 | 31 | 10 | 7 | 3 | 0 | 54 | 57.41 | |
Open canopy | 0 | 1 | 23 | 8 | 2 | 2 | 36 | 63.89 | |
Shrubs | 0 | 0 | 13 | 42 | 7 | 2 | 64 | 65.63 | |
Bare soil | 3 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 109 | 11 | 136 | 80.15 | |
Built-up | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 15 | 37 | 56 | 66.07 | |
Total | 22 | 32 | 50 | 70 | 137 | 54 | 365 | ||
User Acc. (%) | 72.73 | 96.88 | 46.00 | 60.00 | 79.56 | 68.52 |
4.3. Computing LULCC
4.4. Qualitative Fieldwork
5. Results
Land Cover | Area in 2000 (km2) | Area in 2009 (km2) | 2009–2000 Area Change (km2) | 2009–2000 Percent Change (%) | Annual Rate of Change (%/year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Closed canopy | 1723.89 | 4161.03 | 2437.14 | 141.37 | 8.81 |
Open canopy | 3281.12 | 1587.14 | −1693.98 | −51.63 | −7.26 |
Shrubs | 3357.08 | 3033.28 | −323.80 | −9.65 | −1.01 |
Bare soil | 3668.91 | 3141.54 | −527.37 | −14.37 | −1.55 |
Built−up | 50.58 | 108.29 | 57.70 | 114.08 | 7.61 |
Cloud shadow | 1068.04 | 918.51 | −149.53 | −14.00 | −1.51 |
Water | 40.23 | 59.29 | 19.06 | 47.37 | 3.88 |
Total | 13 189.86 | 13 009.07* |
Province/District | Closed Canopy | Open Canopy | Shrubs | Bare Soil | Built-up | Cloud Shadow | Water | Absolute Change (km2)* | Absolute Change/Total Area** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lai Châu Province | |||||||||
Mường Tè | −30.54 | −75.52 | 3.90 | −243.95 | 7.22 | 852.15 | 0.35 | ||
Sìn Hồ | 93.47 | 14.07 | 32.50 | −71.93 | −2.71 | 334.90 | 0.27 | ||
Phong Thổ | 69.50 | −77.95 | −43.30 | 28.69 | 8.59 | 2.64 | 233.53 | 0.28 | |
Lào Cai Province | |||||||||
Bát Xát | 13.07 | 4.61 | 1191.66 | 1.13 | |||||
Lào Cai City | 71.92 | −18.50*** | −27.74 | −47.02 | 17.76 | 0.65 | 2.94 | 185.89 | 0.87 |
Bảo Thắng | 22.83 | −32.25 | −88.88 | −7.94 | 0.85 | −0.31 | 257.63 | 0.49 | |
Mường Khương | −89.74 | 6.69 | 2.91 | 0.87 | 644.18 | 1.16 | |||
Si Ma Cai | 91.42 | −6.96 | −18.21 | −73.69 | 5.74 | 0.26 | 1.25 | 197.27 | 0.85 |
Hà Giang Province | |||||||||
Xín Mần | −51.27 | −41.19 | 0.00 | 48.63 | 2.20 | 376.20 | 0.66 | ||
Hoàng Su Phì | −62.59 | −52.84 | −0.99 | 43.73 | 1.12 | 422.37 | 0.67 | ||
Vị Xuyên | −7.97 | 10.74 | −1.66 | 848.94 | 0.58 | ||||
Quản Bạ | 74.81 | −3.97 | 11.60 | −0.35 | 36.86 | 1.28 | 211.76 | 0.39 | |
Yên Minh | 22.00 | −68.72 | 94.37 | −47.10 | −0.69 | 0.00 | 0.11 | 232.98 | 0.30 |
Đồng Văn | 28.76 | −11.20 | 37.74 | −61.65 | −0.22 | −0.01 | −0.48 | 140.05 | 0.31 |
Mèo Vạc | 10.75 | −42.36 | 38.41 | −21.04 | 0.00 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 112.59 | 0.20 |
In 1999 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cloud Shadow | Water | Closed Canopy | Open Canopy | Shrubs | Bare Soil | Built-up | Total | ||
In 2009 | Cloud shadow | 506.81 | 1.52 | 110.40 | 142.63 | 93.13 | 61.92 | 0.87 | 917.28 |
Water | 8.51 | 15.45 | 1.68 | 3.86 | 8.41 | 19.70 | 1.82 | 59.45 | |
Closed canopy | 139.74 | 0.97 | 1 285.01 | 1 344.63 | 871.10 | 515.50 | 1.66 | 4 158.61 | |
Open canopy | 98.04 | 1.73 | 115.34 | 650.42 | 472.50 | 245.52 | 3.21 | 1 586.76 | |
Shrubs | 103.44 | 4.30 | 87.95 | 662.15 | 1 155.14 | 1 005.88 | 13.39 | 3 032.25 | |
Bare soil | 66.78 | 14.72 | 114.72 | 456.69 | 723.57 | 1 744.98 | 18.33 | 3 139.79 | |
Built-up | 2.58 | 1.61 | 0.98 | 6.08 | 24.66 | 61.06 | 11.29 | 108.27 | |
Total | 925.90 | 40.31 | 1 716.09 | 3 266.45 | 3 348.51 | 3 654.56 | 50.58 | 13 002.40 |
5.1. Examining the Underlying Relationships between LULCC and Livelihood Diversification
5.1.1. Urbanization in the Uplands and the Case of Lai Châu’s Changing Capitals
5.1.2. The Impacts of Increased Cash Needs on Closed Canopy Forest: The Case of Bát Xát District
5.1.3. When Geomorphology Tests Livelihood Limits: Đồng Văn District, Hà Giang Province
6. Discussion: Market Integration, State Policies, and Land-Use Change
7. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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- 1These years correspond with the last two national censuses completed for Vietnam (1999 and 2009), and the most unobstructed satellite images available. They also cover a dynamic time in the contemporary political and economic history of the uplands.
- 2An increasing number of young ethnic minority women have been trafficked to China to become wives for rural farmers there. A common kidnapping approach is for a young man—often from the same ethnicity and posing as a friend of a friend—to lure a young woman to Lào Cai City on his motorbike ‘to have fun’; she is then abducted and taken over the border (interviews with Hmong and Yao youth, 2009, 2014).
- 3In 2004–2005, when former Lai Châu Province was split into Lai Châu and Điện Biên, former Lai Châu Town was renamed Mường Lay Town, now part of the new province of Điện Biên. Most of this town is now under the reservoir for the Sơn La dam.
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Turner, S.; Pham, T.-T.-H. “Nothing Is Like It Was Before”: The Dynamics between Land-Use and Land-Cover, and Livelihood Strategies in the Northern Vietnam Borderlands. Land 2015, 4, 1030-1059. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041030
Turner S, Pham T-T-H. “Nothing Is Like It Was Before”: The Dynamics between Land-Use and Land-Cover, and Livelihood Strategies in the Northern Vietnam Borderlands. Land. 2015; 4(4):1030-1059. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041030
Chicago/Turabian StyleTurner, Sarah, and Thi-Thanh-Hiên Pham. 2015. "“Nothing Is Like It Was Before”: The Dynamics between Land-Use and Land-Cover, and Livelihood Strategies in the Northern Vietnam Borderlands" Land 4, no. 4: 1030-1059. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4041030