Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review Focused on the Processing and Microstructural Parameters Influence on the Final Properties
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Ti6Al4V Alloy
3. Properties and Performance of Ti6Al4V Manufactured by LPBF
3.1. Tensile Properties
3.2. Fatigue Behavior
- (1)
- The densification level of the produced parts, which is defined by the processing parameters used in the fabrication. When defects such as pores and lack of fusion are present in higher amounts (porosity higher than 5%), the fatigue performance tends to be poor [4,69]. In this scenario, cracks can initiate either in the bulk or at the surface due to these defects [84].
- (2)
- The microstructural features are another important aspect because by performing thermal and thermo-mechanical post-treatments, it is possible to substantially improve the fatigue performance of this alloy by altering its microstructure. Hot Isostatic Pressing (a thermo-mechanical treatment) proves to be the most effective post-treatment to increase the fatigue performance of LPBF Ti6Al4V [4,21,84]
- (3)
- The surface condition has a crucial impact on the fatigue performance of this alloy, and regarding LPBF, the natural surface condition was found to be extremely detrimental, even when performing post-treatments on LPBF as-built parts (see Figure 10). In this sense, machining LPBF as-built parts seem to be an effective way to enhance the fatigue performance of Ti6Al4V parts manufactured by this technology.
3.3. Hardness and Wear Performance
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Property | Stainless Steel 316 L (Cast) | F75 CoCrMo Alloy (Cast) | Cortical Human Bone | Ti6Al4V Alloy (Wrought) | Aluminium Alloy A357 (Cast) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density (g/cm3) | 8.0 | 8.8 | 1.5–2 | 4.4 | 2.7 |
Yield strength (MPa) | 205 | 500–1500 | - | 830–1070 | 265–275 |
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) | 515 | 900–1800 | 130–190 | 920–1140 | 331–351 |
Tensile modulus of elasticity (GPa) | 195–205 | 200–230 | 10–30 | 100–110 | 70–75 |
Elastic elongation (%) | 10–40 | 4–13 | - | 10–15 | 6 |
Company | SLM Solutions GmbH (Germany) | EOS GmbH (Germany) | Concept Laser GmbH (Germany) | Renishaw (UK) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Equipment | SLM 125HL [60] | SLM 250HL | SLM 280HL [61] | EOSINT M270 | EOSINT M280 [62] | EOSINT M290 [63] | M2 cusing [64] | AM 250 |
Build Envelope (mm3) | 125 × 125 × 125 | - | 280 × 280 × 365 | 250 × 250 × 215 | 250 × 250 × 325 | 250 × 250 × 325 | 250 × 250 × 280 | 250 × 250 × 300 |
Laser details | IPG fiber laser 400W | IPG fiber laser 400W | IPG fiber laser 400, 700 or 1000W | Yb-fiber laser 200W | Yb-fiber laser 200 or 400W | Yb-fiber laser 400W | Fiber laser 200 or 400W | Yb-fiber laser 200W |
Tensile strength | [33,65] | [56,66,67] | [68] | [69,70,71] | [21,72,73,74,75] | [76,77,78] | [55] | [79,80,81] |
Tensile strain | [33,65] | [56,66,67] | [68] | [69,70,71] | [21,72,73,74] | [76,77] | [55] | [79,80,81] |
Young’s Modulus | [33] | - | [82] | [69,83] | [72] | [77] | [79] | |
Fatigue behavior | - | [4,41,56,84,85,86] | [85] | [7,69,70] | [21,72,74,87] | [77,78] | [55] | |
Fatigue crack analysis | - | [4,56,84,85,86,88] | [85] | [7,69,70,71] | [72,74] | [77] | [55] | |
Hardness | [2,3] | [86] | - | [69] | [89] | [90] | [80] | |
Density | [2,3] | [31,66] | - | [83,91,92] | [89] | [77] | [55,93] | [81] |
Microstructure | [3,33,94] | [56,66,67,84,95] | [68,82] | [7,69,70,71,83,92] | [21,72,73,75,89] | [76,78,96] | [55] | [81,97,98] |
Heat treatments | [4,56,67,84,85,86] | [68,85] | [21,72,73,75] | [77] | [80] | |||
Parameters assessment | [3,65] | [31,66] | - | [69,92] | [90] | [55,93] | [81] | |
Surface roughness | - | [73,74,96] | [90,96] |
Reference | Yield Strength (MPa) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Tensile Strain (%) | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Direction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benedetti et al. [104] | 1015 | 1090 | 10 | 113 | - |
Shunmugavel et al. [33] | 964 1058 | 1041 1114 | 7 3 | 113 109 | longitudinal transversal |
Vandenbroucke et al. [105] | 1125 | 1250 | 6 | 93 | - |
Vrancken et al. [106] | 1110 | 1267 | 7.3 | 109 | transversal |
Edwards et al. [41] | 910 | 1035 | 3 | - | transversal |
Vilaro et al. [58] | 1137 | 1206 | 7.6 | 105 | longitudinal |
962 | 1166 | 1.7 | 102 | transversal | |
Koike et al. [107] | 850 | 960 | 6.8 | - | - |
Anatoliy et al. [68] | 1200 | 1280 | 2.4 | - | - |
Gong et al. [69] | 1098 | 1237 | 8.8 | 109 | - |
Leuders et al. [56] | 1008 | 1080 | 1.6 | - | - |
Wysocki et al. [108] | 1150 | 1246 | 1.4 | - | longitudinal |
1273 | 1421 | 3.2 | - | transversal | |
Kasperovich et al. [55] | 802 | 1062 | 12.7 | - | longitudinal |
Rafi et al. [71] | 1195 1143 | 1269 1219 | 5 4.9 | - - | longitudinal transversal |
Mower et al. [72] | 972 1096 | 1034 1130 | - - | 109 115 | longitudinal transversal |
Huang et al. [80] | 970 | 1191 | 5.4 | - | - |
Fachini et al. [100] | 990 | 1095 | 8.1 | 110 | - |
Reference | Condition/Heat Treatment | YS (MPa) | TS (MPa) | TS’ (%) | Microstructure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kasperovich et al. [55] | Wrought | 927 | 984 | 19.3 | globular α + β (Figure 1a) |
As-built | 736 | 1051 | 11.9 | α′ acicular, column width < 0.5 μm (Figure 1b) | |
700 °C–1 h–FC (10 °C/min) | 1051 | 1115 | 11.3 | α′ acicular, column width < 1.0 μm (Figure 1c) | |
900 °C–2 h followed by 700 °C–1 h–FC (10 °C/min) | 908 | 988 | 9.5 | elongated primary α grains in a β matrix (Figure 1d) | |
HIP (900 °C/100 MPa–2 h) followed by 700 °C–1 h–FC (10 °C/min) | 885 | 973 | 19 | elongated primary α grains in a β matrix (Figure 1e) | |
Vilaro et al. [58] | As-built | 1137 | 1206 | 7.6 | α′ acicular (Figure 2a) |
730 °C–2 h–AC | 965 | 1046 | 9.5 | α′ acicular embedded in α + β phases (Figure 2b) | |
950 °C–1 h–WQ | 944 | 1036 | 8.5 | α′ acicular, α and β (Figure 2c) | |
1050 °C–1 h–WQ | 913 | 1019 | 8.9 | α′ acicular (Figure 2d) | |
Huang et al. [80] | As-built | 970 | 1191 | 5.4 | α′ acicular (Figure 3a) |
800 °C–2 h–AC | 1010 | 1073 | 17.1 | less fine α′ acicular embedded in α + β phases (Figure 3b) | |
950 °C–2 h–AC | 893 | 984 | 14.2 | α laths in β matrix (Figure 3c) | |
1050 °C–1 h–AC | 869 | 988 | 13.3 | equiaxed and α-equiaxed prior β grains (Figure 3d) | |
1200 °C–1 h–AC | 897 | 988 | 11.3 | α-equiaxed prior β grains | |
Vrancken et al. [106] | Forged | 960 | 1006 | 18.4 | α + β |
As-built | 1110 | 1267 | 7.3 | α′ acicular (Figure 4a) | |
540 °C–5 h–WQ | 1118 | 1223 | 5.4 | - | |
850 °C–2 h–FC (0.04 °C/s) | 988 | 1004 | 12.8 | α′ acicular, α and β (Figure 4b) | |
940 °C–1 h–AC followed by 650 °C–2 h–AC | 899 | 948 | 13.6 | long columnar prior β grains (Figure 4c) | |
1015 °C–0.5 h–AC followed by 730 °C–2 h–AC | 822 | 902 | 12.7 | - | |
1015 °C–0.5 h–AC followed by 843 °C–2 h–FC (0.04 °C/s) | 801 | 874 | 13.5 | α + β | |
1020 °C–2 h–FC (0.04 °C/s) | 760 | 840 | 14.1 | α + β (Figure 4d) | |
Leuders et al. [56] | As-built | 1008 | 1080 | 1.6 | α′ acicular |
800 °C–1h–FC | 962 | 1040 | 5 | α′ acicular, α + β | |
1050 °C–1 h–FC | 798 | 945 | 11.6 | α + β | |
HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h–FC | 912 | 1005 | 8.3 | α + β |
Reference | Condition/Heat Treatment | Δkth (MPa√m) | m (Paris Slope) | Kc (MPa√m) | Fatigue Limit | Microstructure | Direction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gong et al. [69] | As-built (OP1) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 350 MPa | α′ acicular | - |
As-built (MP2) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 350 MPa | α′ acicular | - | |
As-built (MP3) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 300 MPa | α′ acicular | - | |
As-built (MP4) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 100 MPa | α′ acicular | - | |
As-built (MP5) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 100 MPa | α′ acicular | - | |
Leuders et al. [56] | As-built | 1.7 | - | - | - | α′ acicular | longitudinal |
800 °C–1 h–FC | 3.7 | - | - | - | α′ acicular, α + β | longitudinal | |
1050 °C–1 h–FC | 6.1 | - | - | - | α + β | longitudinal | |
HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h–FC | ≈3.7 | - | - | - | α + β | longitudinal | |
As-built | 1.4 | - | - | 2700 cycles for 600 MPa | α′ acicular | transversal | |
800 °C–1 h–FC | 3.9 | - | - | 93,000 cycles for 600 MPa | α′ acicular, α + β | transversal | |
1050 °C–1 h–FC | 3.9 | - | - | 2.9 × 104 cycles for 600 MPa | α + β | transversal | |
HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h–FC | ≈4.0 | - | - | 2 × 106 cycles for 600 MPa | α + β | transversal | |
Riemer et al. [85] | As-built | 1.4 | - | - | - | - | - |
800 °C–2 h–FC | 3.9 | - | - | - | - | - | |
1050 °C–2 h–FC | 3.6 | - | - | - | - | - | |
HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h–FC | 4.2 | - | - | - | - | - | |
Greitemeier et al. [21] | As-built (710 °C–2 h–Argon cooling) | ≈3.0 | - | - | 1 × 107 cycles for 200 MPa | α′ acicular | - |
Milled (710 °C–2 h–Argon cooling) | ≈3.0 | - | - | 1 × 107 cycles for ≈460 MPa | α′ acicular | - | |
As-built (HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h) | ≈4.0 | - | - | 1 × 107 cycles for ≈150 MPa | α + β | - | |
Milled (HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h) | ≈4.0 | - | - | 1 × 107 cycles for ≈600 MPa | α + β | - | |
Rafi et al. [120] | |||||||
Wycisk et al. [70] | As-built (650 °C–3 h–Argon cooling) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 210 MPa | α′ acicular | longitudinal |
Polished (650 °C–3 h–Argon cooling) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 510 MPa | α′ acicular | longitudinal | |
Shot-peened (650 °C–3 h–Argon cooling) | - | - | - | 107 cycles for 435 MPa | α′ acicular | longitudinal | |
Edwards et al. [88] | As-built | 6.3 | 2.612 | 72.8 | - | α′ acicular | longitudinal |
As-built | 5.8 | 2.366 | 70.1 | - | α′ acicular | transversal | |
As-built | 5.9 | 2.451 | 43.4 | - | α′ acicular | transversal |
Reference | Condition/Heat Treatment | Hardness (HV) | Microstructure |
---|---|---|---|
Kasperovich et al. [55] | Wrought | 314 | α + β globular |
As-built | 360 | α′ acicular | |
700 °C–1 h–FC | 351 | α′ acicular | |
900 °C–2 h followed by 700 °C–1 h–FC | 324 | α grain in β matrix | |
Koike et al. [107] | As-built | ≈400 | α′ acicular |
Kruth et al. [123] | As-built | 380–420 | α′ acicular |
Bartolomeu et al. [3] | As-built | 389 | α′ acicular |
Li et al. [120] | As-built | ≈400 | - |
Amaya-Vazquez et al. [127] | As built | 440 | α′ acicular |
Song et al. [124] | As-built | 450 | - |
Vilaro et al. [58] | As-built | 354 | α′ acicular |
730 °C–2 h–AC | 344 | α′ acicular, α + β |
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Bartolomeu, F.; Gasik, M.; Silva, F.S.; Miranda, G. Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review Focused on the Processing and Microstructural Parameters Influence on the Final Properties. Metals 2022, 12, 986. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060986
Bartolomeu F, Gasik M, Silva FS, Miranda G. Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review Focused on the Processing and Microstructural Parameters Influence on the Final Properties. Metals. 2022; 12(6):986. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060986
Chicago/Turabian StyleBartolomeu, Flávio, Michael Gasik, Filipe Samuel Silva, and Georgina Miranda. 2022. "Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review Focused on the Processing and Microstructural Parameters Influence on the Final Properties" Metals 12, no. 6: 986. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060986