The Adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to the Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs Using a Consensus Building Approach
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Development of the Initial Theoretical Model
2.2. Expert Panel Recruitment
2.3. The Delphi Method Procedure
- Whether they agreed with where (i.e., on which level) each need group was placed on the adapted hierarchy;
- Whether they agreed with how the need levels were ordered in the adapted hierarchy in terms of importance/priority; and
- Whether they agreed with the labels given to each level.
3. Results
3.1. First Round of Expert Panel Feedback
3.2. Second Round of Expert Panel Feedback
- ⚬
- Do you think that, for any specific dog categories (e.g., seniors, breed/breed types), any of the need groups should be more or less prioritized?
- ⚬
- If yes, please rate on a scale of −3 to +3 how much any need groups should be more or less prioritized for specific dog categories.
- ⚬
- If you think any need groups should be more or less prioritized, please state the specific dog categories to which this decision would apply (e.g., seniors, breed/breed type).
- ⚬
- If you think any need groups should be more or less prioritized for any specific dog categories, please provide references (as a justification for this opinion).
- ⚬
- Do you feel that, overall, the adapted hierarchy has face validity (compared to the original)?
- ⚬
- If you have any additional feedback or comments, please add them here.
3.3. Third Round of Expert Panel Feedback
4. Discussion
- ⚬
- “I think these are fundamental needs that should be met for all dogs and should be personalized for each dog. While seniors may not need as much active exercise as others and may have sensory or cognitive defects that would affect their safety, that should be taken into account for the individual dog. Likewise, some individual dogs may have more anxiety or behavioural issues, but their overall needs are still important.”
- ⚬
- “I’d opt for a prioritization made for all dogs (so ‘generally’) with side notes on possible additional needs for specific characteristics, such as based on hereditary background (selection for morphological or behavioural characteristics), age/life stage, etc. This may take away the issue of the variation between dogs for such characteristics (as well as the different opinions of the experts), whilst at the same time addressing the importance of attending to the characteristics and/or analysing any (additional or lesser) need levels in a particular dog.”
- ⚬
- “I think all dogs should be treated equally, or it will get messy, as dogs sexually/socially mature and age at different times. And where do the cross breeds fit into this?”
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questions Asked to the Expert Panel
- Do you agree with how the need levels are ordered in the adapted hierarchy in terms of importance or priority?
- If no, please state how you would recommend reordering them by selecting a new need level number for each one from the dropdown menu.
- Do you agree with the necessity rankings of the need levels (to achieve an acceptable, good, or best QoL)?
- If no, please state how you think each need level should be ranked by selecting an alternate ranking from the dropdown menu.
- Do you feel that the adapted need level names are suitable and appropriate for each level based on the need groups that comprise them?
- If no, please state any suggestions that you have for alternate adapted need level names.
- Do you agree with where (i.e., on which need level) each need group is located on the adapted hierarchy compared to the original?
- If no, please select from the dropdown menu on which need level name you think each need group should be located.
- Do you think that, for any specific dog categories (e.g., seniors, breed/breed types), any of the need groups should be more or less prioritized?
- If yes, please rate on a scale of −3 to +3 how much any need groups should be more or less prioritized for specific dog categories.
- If you think any need groups should be more or less prioritized, please state to which specific dog categories this change would apply (e.g., seniors, breed/breed type).
- If you think any need groups should be more or less prioritized for any specific dog categories, please provide references (as a justification for this belief).
- Do you think any additional specific needs should be added to any of the need groups?
- If yes, please state what specific needs should be added to the corresponding need group.
- Please provide references for any additional specific needs that you think should be added.
- Do you feel that, overall, the adapted hierarchy contains face validity (compared to the original)?
- If you have any additional feedback or comments, please add them here.
References
- Bradshaw, J.W.S.; Casey, R.A. Anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism as influences in the quality of life of companion animals. Anim. Welf. 2007, 16, 149–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Serpell, J.A. How happy is your pet? The problem of subjectivity in the assessment of companion animal welfare. Anim. Welf. 2019, 28, 57–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urquiza-Haas, E.G.; Kotrschal, K. The mind behind anthropomorphic thinking: Attribution of mental states to other species. Anim. Behav. 2015, 109, 167–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morton, D.B.; Burghardt, G.M.; Smith, J.A. Critical anthropomorphism, animal suffering, and the ecological context. Hastings Cent. Rep. 1990, 20, S13+. Available online: https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A8552698/AONE?u=anon~e28dc00f&sid=googleScholar&xid=ece95bd2 (accessed on 15 May 2023).
- Karlsson, F. Critical anthropomorphism and animal ethics. J. Agric. Environ. Ethics 2012, 25, 707–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Arndt, S.S.; Goerlich, V.C.; van der Staay, F.J. A dynamic concept of animal welfare: The role of appetitive and adverse internal and external factors and the animal’s ability to adapt to them. Front. Anim. Sci. 2022, 3, 908513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maslow, A.H. A theory of human motivation. Psychol. Rev. 1943, 50, 370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Green, T.C.; Mellor, D.J. Extending ideas about animal welfare assessment to include ‘quality of life’ and related concepts. N. Z. Vet. J. 2011, 59, 263–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mellor, D.J.; Beausoleil, N.J. Extending the ‘Five Domains’ model for animal welfare assessment to incorporate positive welfare states. Anim. Welf. 2015, 24, 241–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC). Second Report on Priorities for Research and Development in Farm Animal Welfare; DEFRA: London, UK, 1993. Available online: https://edepot.wur.nl/134980 (accessed on 15 February 2022).
- Myers, D.G. (Ed.) Psychology, 6th ed.; Worth Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2001; pp. 426–427. [Google Scholar]
- Barnard, S.; Pedernera, C.; Candeloro, L.; Ferri, N.; Velarde, A.; Dalla Villa, P. Development of a new welfare assessment protocol for practical application in long-term dog shelters. Vet. Rec. 2016, 178, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blokhuis, H.J.; Veissier, I.; Miele, M.; Jones, B. The Welfare Quality® project and beyond: Safeguarding farm animal well-being. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. A–Anim. Sci. 2010, 60, 129–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dalmau, A.; Velarde, A.; Scott, K.; Edwards, S.; Butterworth, A.; Veissier, I.; Keeling, L.; van Overbeke, G.; Bedaux, V. Welfare Quality® Assessment for Pigs (Sows and Piglets, Growing and Finishing Pigs); Welfare Quality® Consortium: Lelystad, The Netherlands, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Dess, N.K.; Linwick, D.; Patterson, J.; Overmier, J.B.; Levine, S. Immediate and proactive effects of controllability and predictability on plasma cortisol responses to shocks in dogs. Behav. Neurosci. 1983, 97, 1005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grigg, E.K.; Chou, J.; Parker, E.; Gatesy-Davis, A.; Clarkson, S.T.; Hart, L.A. Stress-Related Behaviors in Companion Dogs Exposed to Common Household Noises, and Owners’ Interpretations of Their Dogs’ Behaviors. Front. Vet. Sci. 2021, 8, 760845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hubrecht, R.C.; Serpell, J.A.; Poole, T.B. Correlates of pen size and housing conditions on the behaviour of kennelled dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1992, 34, 365–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wagner, D.; Newbury, S.; Kass, P.; Hurley, K. Elimination behavior of shelter dogs housed in double compartment kennels. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e96254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ross, S. Some Observations On the Lair Dwelling Behavior of Dogs1). Behaviour 1950, 2, 144–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGreevy, P.D.; Righetti, J.; Thomson, P.C. The reinforcing value of physical contact and the effect on canine heart rate of grooming in different anatomical areas. Anthrozoös 2005, 18, 236–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, K.; Prescott, J. Leptospirosis in the family dog: A public health perspective. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 2008, 178, 399–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lane, S.; Lloyd, D. Current trends in research into the waterborne parasite Giardia. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2002, 28, 123–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beerda, B.; Schilder, M.B.; Van Hooff, J.A.; De Vries, H.W.; Mol, J.A. Behavioural, saliva cortisol and heart rate responses to different types of stimuli in dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1998, 58, 365–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scheifele, P.; Martin, D.; Clark, J.G.; Kemper, D.; Wells, J. Effect of kennel noise on hearing in dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2012, 73, 482–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bacon, W.E.; Stanley, W.C. Effect of deprivation level in puppies on performance maintained by a passive person reinforcer. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 1963, 56, 783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Coppola, C.L.; Grandin, T.; Enns, R.M. Human interaction and cortisol: Can human contact reduce stress for shelter dogs? Physiol. Behav. 2006, 87, 537–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gácsi, M.; Topál, J.; Miklósi, Á.; Dóka, A.; Csányi, V. Attachment behavior of adult dogs (Canis familiaris) living at rescue centers: Forming new bonds. J. Comp. Psychol. 2001, 115, 423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kubinyi, E.; Virányi, Z.; Miklósi, Á. Comparative social cognition: From wolf and dog to humans. Comp. Cogn. Behav. Rev. 2007, 2, 26–46. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eniko-Kubinyi/publication/26497954_Comparative_Social_Cognition_From_wolf_and_dog_to_humans/links/60a0c326458515c26595f64c/Comparative-Social-Cognition-From-wolf-and-dog-to-humans.pdf?_sg%5B0%5D=started_experiment_milestone&origin=journalDetail (accessed on 13 January 2022). [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Topál, J.; Gácsi, M.; Miklósi, Á.; Virányi, Z.; Kubinyi, E.; Csányi, V. Attachment to humans: A comparative study on hand-reared wolves and differently socialized dog puppies. Anim. Behav. 2005, 70, 1367–1375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuber, D.S.; Hennessy, M.B.; Sanders, S.; Miller, J.A. Behavioral and glucocorticoid responses of adult domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to companionship and social separation. J. Comp. Psychol. 1996, 110, 103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fox, M.W.; Stelzner, D. Approach/withdrawal variables in the development of social behaviour in the dog. Anim. Behav. 1966, 14, 362–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bergamasco, L.; Osella, M.C.; Savarino, P.; Larosa, G.; Ozella, L.; Manassero, M.; Badino, P.; Odore, R.; Barbero, R.; Re, G. Heart rate variability and saliva cortisol assessment in shelter dog: Human–animal interaction effects. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2010, 125, 56–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beerda, B.; Schilder, M.B.; Van Hooff, J.A.; De Vries, H.W.; Mol, J.A. Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. I. Behavioral responses. Physiol. Behav. 1999, 66, 233–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hetts, S.; Clark, J.D.; Calpin, J.P.; Arnold, C.E.; Mateo, J.M. Influence of housing conditions on beagle behaviour. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1992, 34, 137–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hubrecht, R.C. A comparison of social and environmental enrichment methods for laboratory housed dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1993, 37, 345–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, C.; Arun, A.S.; Jensen, P. Habituation to environmental enrichment in captive sloth bears—Effect on stereotypies. Zoo Biol. 2010, 29, 705–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herron, M.E.; Kirby-Madden, T.M.; Lord, L.K. Effects of environmental enrichment on the behavior of shelter dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2014, 244, 687–692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Larsson, F.; Winblad, B.; Mohammed, A.H. Psychological stress and environmental adaptation in enriched vs. impoverished housed rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2002, 73, 193–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schipper, L.L.; Vinke, C.M.; Schilder, M.B.; Spruijt, B.M. The effect of feeding enrichment toys on the behaviour of kennelled dogs (Canis familiaris). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2008, 114, 182–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Webster, J. Animal welfare: Freedoms, dominions and “a life worth living”. Animals 2016, 6, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Landsberg, G. Therapeutic agents for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction syndrome in senior dogs. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 29, 471–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dalkey, N.C. The Delphi Method: An Experimental Study of Group Opinion (No. RM-5888-PR); Rand Corp Santa Monica Calif: Santa Monica, CA, USA, 1969. [Google Scholar]
- Reber, A.S.; Reber, E.S. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 3rd ed.; Penguin Group: London, UK, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Griffin, K.E. The Potential Role of Behavioural Flexibility in Dogs and Dog Adopters in the Success of Shelter Dog Rehoming. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Stavisky, J.; Watson, B.; Dean, R.; Merritt, B.L.; Van Der Leij, R.W.; Serlin, R. Development of international learning outcomes for shelter medicine in veterinary education: A Delphi approach. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2021, 48, 610–619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collins, J.A.; More, S.J.; Hanlon, A.; Wall, P.G.; McKenzie, K.; Duggan, V. Use of qualitative methods to identify solutions to selected equine welfare problems in Ireland. Vet. Rec. 2012, 170, 442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Elwyn, G.; O’Connor, A.; Stacey, D.; Volk, R.; Edwards, A.; Coulter, A.; Thomson, R.; Barratt, A.; Barry, M.; Bernstein, S.; et al. Developing a quality criteria framework for patient decision aids: Online international Delphi consensus process. BMJ 2006, 333, 417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Phythian, C.J.; Michalopoulou, E.; Jones, P.H.; Winter, A.C.; Clarkson, M.J.; Stubbings, L.A.; Grove-White, D.; Cripps, P.J.; Duncan, J.S. Validating indicators of sheep welfare through a consensus of expert opinion. Animal 2011, 5, 943–952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Skulmoski, G.J.; Hartman, F.T.; Krahn, J. The Delphi method for graduate research. J. Inf. Technol. Educ. Res. 2007, 6, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tobie, C.; Péron, F.; Larose, C. Assessing food preferences in dogs and cats: A review of the current methods. Animals 2015, 5, 126–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alegría-Morán, R.A.; Guzmán-Pino, S.A.; Egaña, J.I.; Muñoz, C.; Figueroa, J. Food preferences in dogs: Effect of dietary composition and intrinsic variables on diet selection. Animals 2019, 9, 219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lin, C.H.; Lo, P.Y.; Wu, H.D.; Chang, C.; Wang, L.C. Association between indoor air pollution and respiratory disease in companion dogs and cats. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2018, 32, 1259–1267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Döring, D.; Backofen, I.; Schmidt, J.; Bauer, A.; Erhard, M.H. Use of beds by laboratory beagles. J. Vet. Behav. 2018, 28, 6–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koch, C.S. Veterinary behaviorists should be the first, not the last, resort for optimal patient care. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2018, 253, 1110–1112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gazzano, A.; Mariti, C.; Alvares, S.; Cozzi, A.; Tognetti, R.; Sighieri, C. The prevention of undesirable behaviors in dogs: Effectiveness of veterinary behaviorists’ advice given to puppy owners. J. Vet. Behav. 2008, 3, 125–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ziv, G. The effects of using aversive training methods in dogs—A review. J. Vet. Behav. 2017, 19, 50–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Overall, K.L.; Dyer, D. Enrichment strategies for laboratory animals from the viewpoint of clinical veterinary behavioral medicine: Emphasis on cats and dogs. ILAR J. 2005, 46, 202–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mills, D.; Braem Dube, M.; Zulch, H. Stress and Pheromonatherapy in Small Animal Clinical Behaviour; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: West Sussex, UK, 2013; pp. 6–7. [Google Scholar]
- Freedman, A.H.; Gronau, I.; Schweizer, R.M.; Ortega-Del Vecchyo, D.; Han, E.; Silva, P.M.; Galaverni, M.; Fan, Z.; Marx, P.; Lorente-Galdos, B.; et al. Genome sequencing highlights the dynamic early history of dogs. PLoS Genet. 2014, 10, e1004016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Miklósi, A. Human-animal interactions and social cognition in dogs. In The Behavioural Biology of Dogs; Jensen, P., Ed.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2011; pp. 207–222. [Google Scholar]
- Pang, J.F.; Kluetsch, C.; Zou, X.J.; Zhang, A.B.; Luo, L.Y.; Angleby, H.; Ardalan, A.; Ekström, C.; Sköllermo, A.; Lundeberg, J.; et al. mtDNA data indicate a single origin for dogs south of Yangtze River, less than 16,300 years ago, from numerous wolves. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2009, 26, 2849–2864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Savolainen, P.; Zhang, Y.P.; Luo, J.; Lundeberg, J.; Leitner, T. Genetic evidence for an East Asian origin of domestic dogs. Science 2002, 298, 1610–1613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Range, F.; Marshall-Pescini, S. Comparing wolves and dogs: Current status and implications for human ‘self-domestication’. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2022, 26, 337–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Michaels, L. Hierarchy of Dog Needs®: Standards of Care and Best Force-free Practices. 2015. Available online: https://www.donoharmdogtraining.com/hierarchy-of-dog-needs-presentation (accessed on 30 May 2023).
- Berteselli, G.V.; Messori, S.; Arena, L.; Smith, L.; Dalla Villa, P.; de Massis, F. Using a Delphi method to estimate the relevance of indicators for the assessment of shelter dog welfare. Anim. Welf. 2022, 31, 341–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Original Hierarchy) | Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs (Adapted Hierarchy) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Need Level Name | Need Level Description [11] | Need Level Name | Need Level Description | Necessity Ranking of Meeting Each Need Level (as They Relate to QoL) | Need Group | Specific Need |
Physiological Needs | Need to satisfy hunger and thirst | Physiological Needs | Need to satisfy hunger and thirst | mandatory | Access to water | Consistently feasible access [10,12,13,14] |
Fresh water [10,14] | ||||||
Access to food | Consistently feasible access [10,12,14] | |||||
Appropriate amounts of food based on dogs’ age, weight, and individual health needs [10,14] | ||||||
Safety Needs | Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable | Safety Needs | Need to feel that one’s environment is safe, stable, and predictable | mandatory | The ability to make one’s own choices/exercise choice (to promote their own QoL) | Predictability [15,16] |
Controllability [10,15,16,17,18] | ||||||
Feeling of safety (i.e., the need to feel safe) | Consistent feeling of safety [10] | |||||
Access to appropriate places for toileting | Consistently feasible access [19] | |||||
Places for toileting that are safe, sanitary, and do not cause any pain or discomfort to the dog [18,19] | ||||||
Access to shelter/housing | Consistently feasible access [19] | |||||
Shelter that provides protection from the outside environment, including, but not limited to, snow, rain, temps > degrees, temps < degrees, and is free from draft/drought [10,12,14] | ||||||
Shelter/housing meets minimum size specifications based on the size of the dog [14] | ||||||
Preventative veterinary care | Routinely executed, as dictated by a veterinarian [10,12,14] | |||||
Care based on dogs’ age, living environment, and individual health needs, including, but not limited to, vaccinations, preventative parasite control, and monitoring of organ functions [10,14] | ||||||
Safety Needs (continued) | Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable | Safety Needs (continued) | Need to feel that one’s environment is safe, stable, and predictable | mandatory | Veterinary care for the treatment of diseases, illnesses, injuries, and wounds | Care immediately following the occurrence of the wound or injury, or upon noticing signs or symptoms of disease or illness [10,12,14] |
Follow-up care for the treatment of diseases, illnesses, injuries, and wounds, as dictated by a veterinarian [10,12,14] | ||||||
Provision of grooming and maintenance (not auto-grooming) | Conducted routinely, including, but not limited to, baths, haircuts, brushing of fur, teeth brushing, nail trimming or filing, and ear cleaning, as dictated by dogs’ age, morphological characteristics, and specific health/medical needs [20] | |||||
Provision of a clean and sanitary living environment | An indoor living environment that is consistently both visibly and invisibly clean and sanitary [18,21,22] | |||||
An outdoor living environment that is consistently both visibly and invisibly clean and sanitary [18,21] | ||||||
Provision of a place for undisturbed rest | Consistently feasible access [16,23,24] | |||||
A place that is consistently quiet and calm [16,23,24] | ||||||
Provision of appropriate bedding or materials suitable for rest based on dogs’ age, size, and any specific health, medical, or behavioural needs | Consistent access [10,12,14] | |||||
Bedding or materials for rest are clean and dry [10,12,14] | ||||||
Belongingness and Love Needs | Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation | Social Needs | Need to avoid loneliness and isolation from humans and conspecifics | preferred | Provision of social contact and support | Consistently provided social contact with humans [25,26,27,28,29,30] |
Type of social contact with humans that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics, is diverse (including humans with varying physical characteristics), and is safe for the dog [20,26,31] | ||||||
Duration of social contact with humans that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics [20,26,32] | ||||||
Consistently provided social contact with other dogs [10,12,14] | ||||||
Housing with other dogs when appropriate, as dictated by the dog’s age, breed, health/medical status, and behavioural characteristics [33,34,35] | ||||||
Type of social contact with other dogs that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics, is diverse (including various types of dogs), and is safe for the dog [10,12,14] | ||||||
Duration of social contact with other dogs that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics [10,12,14] | ||||||
Esteem Needs | Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others | Movement Needs | Need to exert physical energy | preferred | Provision of physical exercise | Consistently provided physical exercise [12] |
Type of exercise that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, health/medical condition, and breed/breed type [12] | ||||||
Duration of exercise that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, health/medical condition, and breed/breed type [12] | ||||||
Self-actualization Needs | Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential | Cognitive Needs | Need to maintain and promote cognitive functioning; need to avoid boredom and frustration | ideal | Provision of cognitive stimulation | Consistently provided cognitive stimulation [35,36,37,38] |
Variability (vs. habituation) [35,39,40] | ||||||
Type of cognitive stimulation that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, health/medical condition, and behavioural characteristics [17,36,37,38,41] | ||||||
Duration of cognitive stimulation that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, health/medical condition, and behavioural characteristics [17,36,37,38] |
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Original Hierarchy) | Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs (Adapted Hierarchy) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Need Level Name | Need Level Description [11] | Need Level Name | Need Level Description | Necessity Ranking of Meeting Each Need Level (as They Relate to QoL) | Need Group | Specific Need |
Physiological Needs | Need to satisfy hunger and thirst | Physiological Needs | Need to satisfy hunger, thirst; need to be free of pain; need to avoid exhaustion | mandatory | Access to water | Consistently feasible access [10,12,13,14] |
Fresh water [10,14] | ||||||
Access to food | Consistently feasible access [10,12,14] | |||||
Food should be palatable and provided in a manner that allows comfort in eating and satiety 1,2 [39,50] | ||||||
Appropriate amounts of sufficient quality food that is composed of an adequate and balance of macro and micronutrients based on dogs’ age, weight, and individual health needs1 [10,14,51] | ||||||
Provision of physical exercise 1 | Consistently provided physical exercise [12] | |||||
Type of exercise that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, health/medical condition, and breed/breed type [12] | ||||||
Duration of exercise that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, health/medical condition, and breed/breed type [12] | ||||||
Access to shelter/housing 1 | Consistently feasible access [10] | |||||
Shelter that provides protection from the outside environment, including, but not limited to, snow, rain, temps > degrees, temps < degrees, and is free from draft/drought [10,12,14] | ||||||
Access to daylight and fresh air on a daily basis 1 [52] | ||||||
Shelter/housing is appropriately sized for the size of the dog, ensuring that the dog has adequate room for species specific behaviours (including, but not limited to, lying down, stretching, walking) 1 [14] | ||||||
Physiological Needs (continued) | Need to satisfy hunger and thirst | Physiological Needs (continued) | Need to satisfy hunger, thirst; need to be free of pain; need to avoid exhaustion | mandatory | Veterinary care for the treatment of diseases, illnesses, injuries, and wounds, including the provision of end-of-life care 1,2 | Care immediately following the occurrence of the wound or injury, or upon noticing signs or symptoms of disease or illness [10,12,14] |
Follow-up care for the treatment of diseases, illnesses, injuries, and wounds as dictated by a veterinarian1 [10,12,14] | ||||||
Provision of a place for undisturbed rest 1 | Consistently feasible access [16,23,24] | |||||
A place that is consistently quiet and calm) [16,23,24] | ||||||
Safety Needs | Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable | Safety Needs | Need to feel that one’s environment is safe, stable, and predictable | mandatory | The ability to make one’s own choices/have agency (to promote their own QoL) 1 | Predictability [15,16] |
Controllability [10,15,16,17,18] | ||||||
Feeling of safety (i.e., the need to feel safe) | Consistent feeling of safety [10] | |||||
Access to appropriate places for toileting | Consistently feasible access [19] | |||||
Places for toileting that are safe, sanitary, are recognisable to as a toilet area to the dog, and do not cause any pain or discomfort to the dog 1 [18,19] | ||||||
Preventative veterinary care | Routinely executed, as dictated by a veterinarian [10,12,14] | |||||
Care based on dogs’ age, living environment, and individual health needs, including, but not limited to, vaccinations, preventative parasite control, and monitoring of organ functions [10,14] | ||||||
Provision of grooming and maintenance (not auto-grooming) | Conducted routinely, including, but not limited to, baths, haircuts, brushing of fur, teeth brushing, nail trimming or filing, and ear cleaning, as dictated by dogs’ age, morphological characteristics, and specific health/medical needs [20] | |||||
Provision of a clean and sanitary living environment | An indoor living environment that is consistently both visibly and invisibly clean and sanitary [18,21,22] | |||||
An outdoor living environment that is consistently both visibly and invisibly clean and sanitary [18,22] | ||||||
Provision of appropriate bedding or materials suitable for rest based on dogs’ age, size, and any specific health, medical, or behavioural needs | Consistent access to appropriate bedding or materials [10,12,14,53] | |||||
Bedding or materials for rest are clean, dry, and safe (for dogs that may chew or ingest bedding) 1 [10,12,14,53] | ||||||
Belongingness and Love Needs | Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation | Social Needs | Need to avoid loneliness and isolation from humans and conspecifics | mandatory1 | Provision of social contact and support | Consistently provided social contact with humans [25,26,27,28,29] |
Type of social contact with humans that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics, is diverse (including humans with varying physical characteristics), is safe for the dog [20,26,31] | ||||||
Duration of social contact with humans that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics [20,26,32] | ||||||
Consistently provided social contact with other dogs [10,12,14] | ||||||
Housing with other dogs when appropriate, as dictated by the dog’s age, breed, health/medical status, and behavioural characteristics [17,33,34] | ||||||
Type of social contact with other dogs that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics, is diverse (including various types of dogs), and is safe for the dog; dogs must show willingness for conspecific contact and should not be forced into any such situation 2 [10,12,14] | ||||||
Duration of social contact with other dogs that is appropriate for the dog based on their age and behavioural characteristics [10,12,14] | ||||||
Esteem Needs | Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others | Integrity Needs1 | Need to be supported behaviourally and emotionally; need to have the appropriate tools and skills to cope in one’s environment1 | preferred1 | Provision of positive/non-punitive training and behavioural support1 | Behavioural support provided by or overseen by appropriately qualified people (i.e., clinical animal behaviourists, veterinary behaviourists, certified dog trainers) 1,2 [54,55] |
Consistently provided behavioural support as needed to address specific behavioural and emotional needs1 [54,55] | ||||||
Type of behavioural support that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, and health/medical condition 1 [54,56] | ||||||
Self-actualization Needs | Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential | Cognitive Needs | Need to maintain and promote cognitive functioning; need to avoid boredom and frustration | Preferred 1 | Provision of cognitive stimulation | Consistently provided cognitive stimulation, including learning new skills 1 [17] |
Variability (vs. habituation) [35,40] | ||||||
Type of cognitive stimulation that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, health/medical condition, and behavioural characteristics [57] | ||||||
Duration of cognitive stimulation that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, health/medical condition, and behavioural characteristics [57] |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Griffin, K.E.; Arndt, S.S.; Vinke, C.M. The Adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to the Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs Using a Consensus Building Approach. Animals 2023, 13, 2620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162620
Griffin KE, Arndt SS, Vinke CM. The Adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to the Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs Using a Consensus Building Approach. Animals. 2023; 13(16):2620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162620
Chicago/Turabian StyleGriffin, Karen E., Saskia S. Arndt, and Claudia M. Vinke. 2023. "The Adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to the Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs Using a Consensus Building Approach" Animals 13, no. 16: 2620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162620